Chapter 7: Learning

Adaptability

Our ability to learn new behaviors that enable us to cope with changing circumstances

Observational Learning (Bandura)

Learning by watching what happens when other people behave and their experiences; requires mirroring and cognition

Associative Learning

Learning that certain events occur closely together; the events may be two stimuli or a response and its consequences

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov/Watson)

Associate two stimuli and thus anticipate an event automatically (respondent behavior); learning associations between uncontrollable events & the predictability of an association

Operant Conditioning (Thorndike/Skinner)

A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment (operant behavior); learning associations between behavior and resulting events in their environment

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers an unconditioned response

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

The unlearned, naturally occurring response to the stimulus

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

An originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with the unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a response; should be presented about ½ second before the UCS

Conditioned Response (CR)

The learned response to a previously neutral stimulus

Acquisition

Initial learning of the behavior/the moment that the response happens; not much time should fall between CS and UCS (if the UCS comes first, it will not take place)

Extinction

The diminishing/suppressed response, which occurs when the CS no longer signals the CR; the UCS is forgotten, causing the CR to disappear

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished conditioned response

Generalization

The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the CS to elicit similar responses

Discrimination

The learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that do not signal CR

B. F. Skinner

Developed behavioral technology (behaviorism); believed all learning was the result of conditioning processes; conducted an experiment where pigeons play ping-pong to be able to eat

Edward Thorndike

Developed the Law of Effect; conducted an experiment where cats must operate latches to escape boxes and are rewarded

Law of Effect (Thorndike)

Rewarded behavior is likely to recur; behavior changes based on its consequences

Operant Chamber (Skinner Box)

In operant conditioning, a chamber with a bar or key that an animal manipulates to obtain a food or water reinforcer; contains devices to record responses

Shaping (Skinner)

An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior closer and closer towards a goal; the trainer builds on existing behaviors by immediately rewarding closer approximations of a desired behavior successively

Reinforcer (Skinner)

Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows (positive and negative)

Positive Reinforcement (Skinner)

Strengthens a response by presenting a stimulus after (giving a treat)

Negative Reinforcement (Skinner)

Strengthens a response by reducing or removing an aversive or unwanted stimulus (elimination of pain after taking medicine)

Primary Reinforcer (Skinner)

An innately reinforcing stimulus that satisfies a biological need (food, water)

Secondary/Conditioned Reinforcer (Skinner)

A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer (money, grades)

Continuous Reinforcement (Skinner)

Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs (quick acquisition/extinction)

Partial/Intermittent Reinforcement (Skinner)

Reinforcing a response only part of the time (slower acquisition/greater resistance to extinction)

Fixed-Ratio (FR) Schedules (Skinner)

A schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses; different ratios & high rate of responding (faster responses = more rewards)

Variable-Ratio (VR) Schedule (Skinner)

A schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses; the highest/most consistent rate of responding & low number of pauses between responses (average ratios)

Fixed-Interval (FI) Schedule (Skinner)

A schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed; response occurs more frequently as the anticipated time for reward draws near

Ivan Pavlov

A Russian experimental neurologist and physiologist who studied the behavior of dogs and developed a theory of classical conditioning; trained a hungry dog to salivate at the sound of a metronome or buzzer

Variable-Interval (VI) Schedule (Skinner)

A schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

John B. Watson

An American psychologist who founded classical behaviorism; known for the Little Albert experiment, in which he demonstrated that a child could be conditioned to fear a previously neutral stimulus

Punishment (Skinner)

An event that decreases the behavior that it follows

Positive Punishment (Skinner)

Diminishes a response by adding an undesirable stimulus

Negative Punishment (Skinner)

Diminishes a response by reducing or removing a desired stimulus

Learned Helplessness (Martin Seligman)

The hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

Behaviorism (Watson)

The view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes

Higher-Order/Second-Order Conditioning (Pavlov)

A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus

Mirroring

The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior; being able to picture doing the same action

Mirror Neurons

Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing or observing another doing certain actions/feelings; the brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy

Emotional Contagion

Humans are prone to the spontaneous imitation of both behaviors and emotions and copying adult behaviors that have no function and no reward; children diagnosed with Autism struggle with this

Cognition

Noticing consequences and associations; is important in both classical and operant conditioning

Modeling (Bandura)

The behavior of others serves as an example of how to respond to a situation; we may try this regardless of reinforcement

Vicarious (Bandura)

Experienced indirectly, through others

Vicarious Conditioning (Bandura)

Our choices are affected when we see others get consequences for their behaviors

Vicarious Reinforcement (Bandura)

Cognitively practicing a behavior just by watching it; likely to lead to imitation

Prosocial Behavior

Actions that benefit others, contribute value to groups, and follow moral codes and social norms; actions need to be shown to learn and follow along

Antisocial Behavior

Actions that are harmful to individuals and society; children of violence are likely to be violent even if hate violence

Cognitive Learning

Learning by acquiring new behaviors and information mentally, rather than by direct experience; occurs by observing events and the behavior of others & by using language to acquire information about events experienced by others

Taste Aversion (John Garcia)

A learned avoidance of a specific taste or flavor due to its association with a negative experience

Token Economy

Individuals earn tokens as reinforcement for desirable behaviors, which can later be exchanged for rewards or privileges

Social Learning Theory (Bandura)

Individuals learn by observing and imitating the behaviors of others, incorporating cognitive processes such as attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation

Cognitive Map (Tolman)

A mental representation of the layout of one’s environment (after exploring a maze, rats can remember it)

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive/reinforcement to demonstrate it

Intrinsic Motivation

A desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

Extrinsic Motivation

A desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment