AP Psych Unit 2: Cognitive Psychology

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

Encoding

the processing of information so that it can be stored

explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

implicit memory

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection; processed automatically

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

method of loci

A mnemonic technique that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations

parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.

primacy effect

tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well

recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

recency effect

tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

Retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

semantic memory

memory of general knowledge and information

episodic memory

the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place

memory consolidation

the gradual, physical process of converting new long-term memories to stable, enduring memory codes

infantile amnesia

inability of adults to remember personal experiences that took place before an early age; usually age 4

flashbulb memory

A clear and vivid long-term memory of an especially meaningful and emotional event.

LTP

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory; strengthening of neural networks

Priming

An enhanced ability to think of a stimulus, such as a word or object, as a result of a recent exposure to the stimulus

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

loss of memories from our past

proactive interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

reconsolidation

a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again

misinformation effect

when misleading information has corrupted one's memory of an event

source amnesia

faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined

prototype

a mental image or best example of a category

convergent thinking

narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

divergent thinking

expands the number of possible problem solutions

Algorithm

A methodical, logical rule or step-by-step procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.

Heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

intuition

the power of knowing things without thinking; sharp insight

representative heuristic

a mental shortcut whereby people classify something according to how similar it is to a typical case

availability heuristic

making a decision based on the answer that most easily comes to mind

anchoring bias

a tendency to focus on initial information, from which one then fails to adequately adjust for subsequent information

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

Overconfidence

Tendency to overestimate our ability to make correct predictions

belief perseverance

tendency to stick to our initial beliefs even when evidence contradicts them

Framing

the way an issue is posed; can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

functional fixedness

the tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use

language

our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

phoneme

in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

Morpheme

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)

linguistic determinism

Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think

G-factor

A general ability, proposed by Spearman as the main factor underlying all intelligent mental activity

factor analysis

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score.

savant syndrome

a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing

intelligence test

a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores

achievement test

a test designed to assess what a person has learned

IQ

measure of intelligence; the average is 100; there are many definitions of this attribute, including multiple and crystallized

Flynn effect

the worldwide phenomenon that shows intelligence test performance has been increasing over the years

Reliability

consistency of measurement

Validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

cohort

A population group unified by a specific common characteristic, such as age, and subsequently treated as a statistical unit.

Crystalized intelligence

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

fluid intelligence

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood

aptitude test

a test designed to predict a person's future performance and capacity to learn

perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

bottom-up processing

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information

top-down processing

the use of preexisting knowledge to organize individual features into a unified whole

selective attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

cocktail party effect

Ability to concentrate on one voice amongst a crowd

inattentional blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

sensory adaptation

tendency of sensory receptor cells to become less responsive to a stimulus that is unchanging

Schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

Gestalt psychology

a psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts

figure-ground

the organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings

depth perception

the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance

binocular cues

depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes

monocular cues

depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone

phi phenomenon

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession