Ethics: Deontology, Kant and Virtue Ethics

Who was Immanuel Kant?

German philosopher, the central figure in modern philosophy, 'father of the Enlightenment' and empiricist, created deontological (duty) ethics. Believed in absolutism and intrinsic right and wrong.

How does Kant argue morality suggests freedom exists?

-Without freedom, morality is not possible
-Morality exists
-Therefore, freedom exists

What does Kant's argument for freedom demonstrate?

That determinism (the idea that all our actions and events are pre-determined) undermines morality.

How does Kant argue where freedom comes from?

-Without reason we are a slave to our passions
-If we were slaves to our passions we wouldn't be free
-Therefore without reason we would not be free

How does Kant combine his first two premises?

-Without reason there is no freedom
-Without freedom there is no morality
-Therefore without reason there is no morality

What are the three groups Kant identifies in morality?

-ANIMALS: Only follow desires, no reason (phenomenal realm)
-HUMANS: Both desires and reason, choose which to follow (both realms)
-ANGELS: Only reason (noumenal realm)

Why is it important that humans exist in both realms and have both desire and reason, according to Kant?

If we only acted on our desires we would do morally wrong action. If we were perfectly rational we would only do the right thing but only angels/God can do that. The tension between rationality and desire leaves room for duty.

What is good will?

Acts done for the sake of duty / for good itself. All acts are either selfish or duty-motivated.

What is the shopkeeper analogy?

Kant uses the shopkeeper analogy:
-A shopkeeper can choose to overcharge a child or not
-He chooses not to do so as it is wrong
-However, this could be selfish if it was done because the child could tell their parents and lose him business
-It is only moral and good if done because it was wrong itself

What is the quote Kant uses to describe good will?

"Nothing can possibly be conceived in the world or even out of it, which can be called good without qualification except good will." -Immanuel Kant

What are the 4 duties according to Kant?

-PERFECT DUTIES TO SELF
-IMPERFECT DUTIES TO SELF
-PERFECT DUTIES TO OTHERS
-IMPERFECT DUTIES TO OTHERS

Explain perfect duties to self and others?

Perfect duties are all duties that are 100% necessary and should never be violated. Those to the self are to preserve our own lives (eating) and those to others are unbreakable and relate to our relationships with others (Don't do harm).

Explain imperfect duties to others and self?

Imperfect duties can be broken if needed. To self it is to improve yourself (study/practise something) and to others it is to help them (giving to charity).

What is the summum bonum?

the highest, most supreme good, only achievable in the afterlife

What are imperatives?

Imperatives are the commands that govern humans as not fully rational or fully desire-driven beings, they tell us what we should do but we make the choice. Practical goodness will determine the will based on reason alone. Objective morality according to Kant is based wholly on reason.

What are the types of imperatives?

-HYPOTHETICAL
-CATAGORICAL

Define categorical imperatives

Commands necessary without referencing the consequences. Morality is a categorical imperative. (they are a priori)

What was Kant's first formulation (Universalizability principle)?

'Act only in accordance with that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it become a universal law'
-We should only do the things that as a rule can be universally applied, that we can imagine everyone in the world following.

What was Kant's second formulation (Humanity principle)?

'The human being… exists as an end in itself, not merely as a means to the discretionary use of this or that will'
-Kant says we must treat all rational beings as equal and valuable

Define hypothetical imperatives

Commands to obtain something else that you want

What is deontological ethics?

The belief that morality is defined by the intention not the consequences.

What is Kantian Deontology?

A duty-based set of absolutist ethics, that suggest intention of actions is as if not more important than the outcome, and emphasises logic.

Social influence on Kant’s theory

He was influenced by rationalist philosophers.

Give 2 philosophers that influenced Kant

Descartes’ empiricism and Francis Bacon.

Cultural influences on Kant’s ethics

He worked during the Enlightenment period, a period which emphasised autonomy and reason.

Political influences on Kant’s ethics

His work was shaped by political ideas of freedom and equality.

What is duty-based ethics?

That being good is a moral obligation.

What was Kant’s third formulation (Kingdom of Ends)

Ethics should be treated as if they contribute to a universal moral community.

Who created Prima Facie duties?

W. D. Ross

What are Prima Facie duties?

Moral obligations that can be overridden by bigger, stronger duties.

Outline T. Nagel’s criticism of Kant

Says it is based on ‘moral luck’ and many factors are not considered due to its absolutist nature.

What suggests the success of Kantian ethics?

Application to human rights laws, medical ethics and AI.

What is the difference between Aristotle’s ethics and Kant’s?

Aristotle focused on character development and achieving an ends, whereas Kant advised abiding by strict rules to achieve happiness or summon bonnum.

Historical influence for Aristotle

Ancient Greece was preoccupied with virtues link to social order.

Cultural influences for Aristotle

He was inspired by Plato but rejected abstract forms in favour of applicable or practical wisdom.

Define eudaimonia

Ultimate goal in life, human flourishment.

Define the Golden Mean

The ‘virtue’ exists between two vices or two extremes. For example, ‘bravery’ exists between ‘cowardice’ and ‘recklessness’.

How are Aristotle’s virtues cultivated?

Habit and practise of them to develop phronesis.

What is phronesis?

Practical wisdom.

What did Aristotle emphasise as important to aid flourishing?

Virtuous role models.

Outline Phillipa Foot’s contributions

Revival of virtue ethics and creator of the famous ‘trolley problem’, argued ethics was necessary for human well-being.

Outline A. MacIntyre’s contributions

Criticised modern moral discourse and promoted Aristotle’s ethics.

Give 3 strengths of Kantian Deontological ethics

• Clarity of rules

• Emphasises human dignity and rights

• Avoids subjectivity

Give 2 weaknesses of Kantian Deontological ethics

• Absolutist so leaves no room for situation

• Ignores emotion

Give 3 strengths of Aristotelian virtue ethics

• Focuses on character development

• Allows context sensitivity

• Encourages personal flourishment

Give 2 weaknesses of Aristotelian virtue ethics

• Doesn’t actually help decision making

• Relies on subjective defining of morality

How is virtue ethics applied?

Medical decisions, psychology and in education

Is Kantian ethics compatible with religion?

Based on Kant’s own Christian beliefs so to an extent yes