Unit 0: History and Approaches ID Terms

Psychology

- the scientific study of the mind and behavior

Plato

- believed experiences create a subjective reality and cannot be observed

- we each have our own perception unique to our own life experiences

Aristotle

- to understand the essence of something was to study specific examples in nature

- observation and data

- human behavior subject to rules and laws

Rene Descartes

- mind-body dualism

- dualism vs. monism

Dualism

- 2-part quality to humans

- 2 parts interact

- the mind and body are distinct, separate entities

Monism

- the mind and body are not distinct, separate entities, but rather aspects of a single reality

- nothing exists except physical matter

- mind is a function of the brain

John Locke

- tabula rasa or "blank slate"

- Our experiences in the world shape the person

- behaviorism

- Empiricism: an approach to understanding subjects by examining data, rather than using intuition or reason alone

- Nature vs. Nurture

Tabula rasa

blank slate

Behaviorism

- a learning theory that focuses on observable behaviors and disregards the importance of mental activity, such as thinking, wishing, and hoping

Empiricism

- an approach to understanding subjects by examining data, rather than using intuition or reason alone

- gaining knowledge through the observation of events, the collection of data, and logical reasoning

Nature vs nurture

- concept asking, "Do genes or environmental factors contribute more to a person's being?"

Wilhelm Wundt

- The father of psychology who developed the first psychology lab and studied the mind

- Developed the ideas that led to structuralism

Introspection

- the process of examining one's own thoughts, feelings, and experiences

- looking inside our own minds, by focusing on our thoughts (literally "looking inside")

Edward Titchener

- student of Wilhelm Wundt

- coined the term "structuralism"

Structuralism

- Wundt's approach to discovering the basic elements, or structures, of mental processes

- so-called because of its focus on identifying the structures of the human mind

William James

- Early American psychologist who founded Functionalism, the precursor of behaviorism, and developed one of the 3 most often cited theories of emotion

Charles Darwin

- survival of the fittest

- 1859, published his ideas on the origin of species

- a centerpiece of his theory was the principle of natural selection

Theory of evolution

- states that organisms change and develop over time to adapt to an increased rate of survival

Stream of consciousness

- term used by William James to describe the mind as a continuous flow of changing sensations, images, thoughts, and feelings

- the continuous, flowing nature of subjective experience, where thoughts, feelings, and sensations are perceived as a constant, interconnected stream rather than discrete, separate events

Functionalism

- the precursor of behaviorism

- James' approach to mental processes, emphasizing the functions and purposes of the mind and behavior in the individual's adaptation to the environment

Mary Whiton Calkins

- American psychologist who conducted research on memory, personality, and dreams

- 1st woman president of the American Psychological Association (APA)

- student of William James

Margaret Floy Washburn

- 1st woman to receive a PhD in psychology

- a leading American psychologist in the early 20th century

- known for her experimental work in animal behavior and motor theory development

Dorothea Dix

- mental illness treatment reform

- a reformer and pioneer in the movement to treat the insane as mentally ill

- beginning in the 1820s, she was responsible for improving conditions in jails, poorhouses, and insane asylums throughout the U.S. and Canada

Gestalt Psychology

- a school of thought interested in how people naturally organize their perceptions according to certain patterns

- a school of thought that emphasizes that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts

- focuses on how the mind organizes sensory information into meaningful wholes, rather than just processing individual elements

Sigmund Freud

- Father of modern psychology and developer of psychoanalytic theory

- Considered to be the most influential psychologist of the first half of the 20th century

Psychoanalytic approach

- an approach to psychology focusing on unconscious thought, the conflict between biological drives and society's demands, and early childhood family experiences

- emphasizes the influence of the unconscious mind on behavior and personality development

- Sigmund Freud

Unconscious

- according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories

- well below the surface of awareness

- memories, feelings, drives, and dreams

Latent

- according to Freud, a dream's hidden content

- its unconscious and true meaning

Id

- Devil on the shoulder

- pleasure principle

- unconscious urges and desires

- the Freudian structure of personality consisting of unconscious drives

- the individuals' reservoir of sexual energy

Superego

- Angel on the shoulder

- Ego ideal

- Moral guardian

- the Freudian structure of personality that serves as the harsh internal judge of our behavior; what we often call conscience

Ego

- Balance between the id and superego

- Self

- Reality principle

- the Freudian structure of personality that deals with the demands of reality

Behaviorist

- a psychologist who analyzes how organisms learn or modify their behavior based on their response to events in the environment

- defines psychology as the study of behavior, not of behavior and mental processes

John Watson

- Early American psychologist who founded behaviorism and studied classical conditioning

- famous for the "Little Albert" experiments on fear conditioning

Edward Thorndike

- psychologist who created the law of effect

- believed rewarded behavior is likely to recur

Stimulus and response learning

- the ability to learn to perform a particular behavior when a particular stimulus is present

Classical conditioning

- learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an innately meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response

Ivan Pavlov

- Early psychologist who "discovered" classical conditioning while doing work on salivation in dogs

B.F. Skinner

- Famous behaviorist who developed operant conditioning, which elaborated on the "Law of Effect"

Skinner box

- a laboratory apparatus used to study operant conditioning in animals, which typically contains a lever that animals can press to dispense food as reinforcement

- operant conditioning chamber

- a device used to study how animals learn behaviors through reinforcement and punishment

Operant conditioning

- a form of associative learning in which the consequences of a behavior change the probability of the behavior's occurrence

- a type of learning where behavior is modified by its consequences

Cognitive approach

- an approach to psychology focusing on the mental processes involved in knowing: how we direct our attention, perceive, remember, think, and solve problems

- examines how mental processes like thinking, memory, and problem-solving influence behavior

- having to do with the mental processes such as sensation and perception, memory, intelligence, language, thought, and problem solving

- How thinking and perception (thoughts!) influence behavior

Jean Piaget

- Famous cognitive psychologist of the early 20th century who studied cognitive development in children

- Famous for his stage theory of cognitive development

Humanistic approach

- an approach to psychology focusing on a person's positive qualities, the capacity for positive growth, and the freedom to choose one's own destiny

- emphasizes the uniqueness of each individual and their capacity for personal growth and self-actualization

- Stresses the human capacity for self-fulfillment and the central roles of consciousness, self-awareness, and decision-making.

- believe that self-awareness, experience, and choice permit us, to a large extent, to 'invent ourselves' as we progress through life (emo stage, prep stage, etc.)

Carl Rogers

- Humanistic psychologist famous for his psychotherapy method called "person centered theory" and "client centered therapy"

- one of the founders of humanistic psychology

Abraham Maslow

- Humanistic psychologist famous for his "Hierarchy of Needs" theory of motivation

Hierarchy of needs

- a theory of psychological health developed by Abraham Maslow, predicated on fulfilling innate human needs in priority, culminating in self-actualization

- a motivational theory outlining a five-tier model of human needs, arranged in a pyramid

- Lower levels must be satisfied before higher-level needs become motivating, progressing from basic physiological requirements to self-actualization

Sociocultural approach

- an approach to psychology focusing on the ways in which social and cultural environments influence behavior

- examines how social and cultural factors influence individual behavior and mental processes

- Studies the influences of ethnicity, gender, culture, and socioeconomic status on behavior and mental processes

Biological approach

- an approach to psychology focusing on the body, especially the brain and nervous system

- examines how our genes, brain structures, and nervous system influence our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors

- Assume that thoughts, fantasies, and dreams-and the inborn or instinctive behavior patterns of various species-are made possible by the nervous system and especially the brain

- Seek the links between the activity of the brain, the activity of hormones, and heredity, and behavior and mental processes

Evolutionary psychologist

- psychologists who focuses on evolutionary ideas such as adaptation, reproduction, and natural selection as the basis for explaining specific human behaviors

- psychologists who study how natural selection has shaped the human mind and behavior

- believe that inherited tendencies move us in certain directions

Biopsychosocial model

- a model that sees health as the result of biological, psychological, and social factors

- a framework that emphasizes the interconnectedness of biological, psychological, and social factors in understanding health, illness, and behavior

Applied psychologists

- psychologists who use the knowledge developed by experimental psychologists to solve human problems

- conducted in an effort to find solutions to problems; face-to-face with clients

Basic psychologists

- psychologists who research without concern to personal or social problems

- conducted without concern for immediate applications to personal or social problems; research for its own sake (no clients)

Psychiatrists

- medical doctors who can prescribe medication

- May work in tandem with psychologists

- a physician with a medical degree who subsequently specializes in abnormal behavior and psychotherapy

- can prescribe drugs

- has an interest in improving the lives of people with mental health problems

Clinical psychologists

- typically have a doctoral degree in psychology, which requires approximately four to five years of graduate work and one year of internship in a mental health facility

- cannot prescribe drugs

- have an interest in improving the lives of people with mental health problems

- help people with psychological disorders adjust to the demands of life

Counseling psychologists

- use interviews and tests to define their clients' problems

- primarily work with individuals going through a difficult time, rather than mental illness

- sometimes work with people to help solve practical problems in life

- may work with students, advising them about personal problems and career planning

- cannot prescribe drugs

Human factors psychologists

- make technical systems such as automobile dashboards and computer keyboards more user-friendly

- typically background in engineering

Industrial-organizational psychologists

- study the relationship between people and work to increase efficiency

- study behavior of people in organizations like businesses

School psychologists

- identify and assist students with learning problems - generally work in face-to-face settings

- work in gifted programs, special education, IQ testing, and individual education plans

- basic psychologists

Biological psychologists

- study behaviors and mental processes from a biological perspective

- provide insight into the causes of and treatments for psychological disorders

- a complex interaction between a person's biology and their behavior and mental processes

Cognitive psychologists

- examine attention, consciousness, information processing, and memory

- interested in skills and abilities such as problem solving, decision making, expertise, and intelligence

Developmental psychologists

- concerned with how people become who they are, from conception to death

- concentrate on the biological and environmental factors that contribute to human development

- study child development but also adult development and aging

- study the changes—physical, cognitive, social, and emotional—that occur across the lifespan

Educational psychologists

- research theoretical issues related to learning, measurement, and child development

- make tests such as SATs

- research how people learn

- basic psychologists

Experimental psychologists

- psychologists who explore behavior and thinking with experiments

- specialize in basic processes such as the nervous system, sensation and perception, learning and memory, thought, motivation, and emotion

- generally work in laboratories

- basic psychologists

Psychometric psychologists

- design and evaluate tests of mental abilities, aptitudes, interests, and personality

Personality psychologists

- consider personality, consisting of the relatively enduring characteristics of individuals

- study topics such as traits, goals, motives, genetics, personality development, and well-being

- interested in those aspects of your psychological makeup that make you uniquely you

- identify and measure human traits and determine influences on human thought processes, feelings, and behavior

Social psychologists

- deal with people's interactions with one another, relationships, social perceptions, social cognition, and attitudes

- interested in the influence of groups on our thinking and behavior and in the ways that the groups to which we belong influence our attitudes

- concerned with the nature and causes of individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behavior in social situations

- Influence of family, culture, religion, and peer group on behavior (Collectivistic vs. Individualistic)