S. 2. 2.-describe relationship between genetic material and the structure of proteins

DNA

The hereditary material of most organisms is contained in these molecules. It is also responsible for directing protein synthesis in living organisms

RNA

controls the intermediate steps involved in protein synthesis

Genes

a sequence of DNA that is the basic unit of heredity/ are segments of DNA which can code for specific proteins

Chromosomes

Genes are located on larger structures called

Parents' DNA

Offspring inherit units encoded by genes present in whose DNA

Chromosomes

Genetic information is contained in structures called these which consist of tightly coiled DNA that winds around histone proteins

Chromosome

The winding process condenses the DNA and allows regulation of genes located on this

Chromosomes

Each species of living things has a particular number of these

Prokaryotic organisms

like bacteria they have a single circular chromosome

Eukaryotic organisms

organisms/ (cells with nuclei) have many linear chromosomes

46 chromosomes

How many chromosomes do humans have?

78 chromosomes

How many chromosomes does a dog have?

Genes

made up of DNA and are the basic physical and functional unit of heredity

Genes

a length of DNA that contains instructions to make a protein or regulate the making of proteins

Genes

They are clusters in areas in between regions of DNA within unknown functions/ vary in size from a few hundred DNA bases to more than a million bases

25,000 genes

How many genes do humans have?

Structural genes

are converted into a short-lived RNA message(mRNA) that is decoded by the ribosomes and assembled into proteins that build structures in living things

Regulatory genes

control the expression protein-coding genes by turning on or off activity, either directly or through a protein intermediate/ control the expression of different subsets of structural genes in different cell types

Cells

Not all of these will express the same genes; therefore they will make different proteins

Keratin

skin cells produce this(tough protein made by epithelial keratinocytes). Other cell types may not need this. Regulatory genes in these other cell types will turn off the genes that code for this. In this way, only the genes coding for needed proteins in a given cell are turned on or expressed

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

the material that contains genetic information and is responsible for directing protein synthesis in living organisms is a macromolecule that contains genes that are the coded instructions for a cell to produce proteins

Twisted ladder (double helix)

Structure of DNA

Phosphate and Deoxyribose sugar molecules

Sides of the DNA ladder

4 nucleotide bases

Tings of the DNA ladder

Deoxyribose sugar

sugar portion of a deoxyribose nucleotide

a-adenine, t-thymine, g-guanine, and c-cytosine

The four nucleotide bases are represented by letters:

Codon

a sequence of three nucleotides that codes for a specific amino acid or stop signal during protein synthesis

Nucleotides

the monomers used to build DNA and RNA

Codons

A gene for a specific protein can be thousands of this(triplets of nucleotides that code for amino acids) long

Stop signal codon

The gene will end with what

Ribosomes

organelles that assemble proteins. They assemble proteins from animo acids in the order specified by the codons of the gene

Complementary

The DNA molecules is composed of two strands(or two sides of the ladder). The two strands of DNA are this (a molecule of RNA(or strand of DNA) synthesized from a this template strand). This means that the nucleotide bases of the two strands are paired correctly and specifically

T-thymine

The base A-adenosine always pairs with what

C-cytosine

on the other strand, and g-guanine always pairs with what

Complementary

This A-T and G-C are referred to as what type of base pairs

Hydrogen bonds

Complementary bases are linked by two of these bonds(a type of non-covalent bond; weak attraction between a hydrogen atom bound to an electronegative atom and a second highly electronegative atom) between A and T and three hydrogen bonds between G and C

Hydrogen bond

Although an individual of this bond is weak, these bonds are strong in DNA because they occur large numbers and maintain DNA's integrity. However, these bonds are easier to break than covalent bonds. This allows the two strands to be separated for DNA replication and transcription

Transcription

the synthesis of RNA from a DNA template

Chromatids

Before a cell replicates, chromosomes containing DNA must be copied to make two identical copies called what. They can then be separated and then two new cells will have identical copies of DNA

Opposite

Two strands of DNA run in what directions. This makes the strands anti-parallel

Sense strand

Information is coded in DNA in the 5 to 3 direction, so this strand is called what

Anti-sense strand

The other strand giving in the 3 to 5 direction is called what

sense/antisense strands

This is used as the template in DNA replication and transcription

Mutation

a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of DNA that may arise during replication/ They occur either by substitution, deletion, or insertion of base pairs. They are harmless except when they lead to cell death or tumor formation. Cells have evolved mechanisms for repairing damaged DNA

Ribonucleic acid's (RNA)

Its principal role is to act as a messenger carrying instructions from DNA for controlling the synthesis of proteins

Messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA(rRNA)

Proteins synthesis requires three types of RNA:

RNA

a single chain of ribose sugar containing nucleotides

Nucleotides

are adenine, uracil(replaces thymine), guanine, and cytosine. The base pairing are A-U and G-C. (For RNA)

Transcription and translation

Protein synthesis is two stages:

Translation

proteins synthesis that takes place after mRNA exits the nucleus and binds to a ribosome

Transcription

(means to copy/rewrite) is the synthesis of RNA from a DNA template

mRNA

DNA is too big to leave the nucleus of the cell;therefore, it copies the code for the instructions for this gene. This form of RNA is smaller and can leave the nucleus and carry the information to the cytoplasm, where proteins synthesis takes place

Template strand

Recall that the DNA is double stranded; mRNA is an exact copy of the this (a sequence of bases on a strand of DNA that is used to form a complementary mRNA molecule)(5 to 3) of DNA except that thymine is replaced with uracil

rRNA (ribosomal RNA)

Once mRNA has entered the cytoplasm through the nuclear pores, this in ribosomes attaches to the mRNA strand and begins to transcribe the instructions

mRNA (messenger RNA)

Each of this codon designates a particular amino acid to be inserted into a protein(peptide) chain

Transferred(tRNA)

The amino acids are this to the ribosome subunit and deliver the anticodon(codon complement)

Peptide bond

Once a match is made, the tRNA releases the amino acids and catalytic rRNA binds the match together via this(the link between amino acids in a protein). The result is a desired protein

Human Genome

the complete set of genetic information in a cell

23 pairs

humans have how many pairs of chromosomes and a total of 46 chromosomes

Gene

contain thousands of codons long/ Specific regions of DNA are called this