principles of mgmt

Perception:

he process of interpreting and making sense of information from the environment. It’s how we see, hear, and understand events, people, or situations.

Attribution

The process of assigning causes to behavior or events—why someone acted a certain way.

Internal factors (dispositional)

Personal traits, abilities, or effort.

External factors (situational)

Environmental pressures or circumstances.

Luck or chance

Random events outside anyone’s control.

Actor-observer bias

We attribute others’ behavior to internal factors, but our own to external factors.

Self-serving bias

We credit ourselves for success (internal) but blame external factors for failures.

Selection

Choosing which stimuli to focus on from the environment.

Rushing

Making quick judgments without enough information.

Stereotyping

• Applying generalized beliefs about a group to an individual.

Similar-to-me bias

Favoring people similar to oneself.

Halo/horns error

Letting one positive (halo) or negative (horns) trait influence overall judgment.

Leniency error

Consistently rating people higher than deserved

Central Tendency error

Avoiding extreme ratings and giving everyone average scores.

Recency error

Giving more weight to recent behavior rather than overall performance.

Contrast error

• Comparing one person to another instead of evaluating against objective standards.