Scientific Revolution & Enlightenment: Key Thinkers and Concepts

Copernicus

Polish astronomer who proposed the heliocentric theory, arguing that the Earth and planets revolve around the sun.

Brahe

Danish nobleman who built advanced observatories and collected the most accurate astronomical data of the pre-telescope era.

Kepler

German mathematician and astronomer who used Brahe's data to formulate the three laws of planetary motion.

Galileo

Italian scientist who improved the telescope and discovered sunspots, mountains on the moon, and Jupiter's moons.

Newton

English physicist and mathematician who unified celestial and earthly physics through the laws of motion and universal gravitation.

Paracelsus

Revolutionary physician who rejected ancient medical teachings and proposed that disease was caused by chemical imbalances.

Vesalius

Author of On the Fabric of the Human Body (1543) and considered the 'Father of Modern Anatomy.'

Harvey

English physician who demonstrated that the heart pumps blood in a closed circulatory system.

Margaret Cavendish

Prominent English philosopher and scientist who criticized the belief that humans could dominate nature through science.

Maria Sibylla Merian

German naturalist and illustrator who studied insects firsthand in South America.

Maria Winkelmann

German astronomer who discovered a comet but was denied academic positions due to gender.

Gottfried Kirch

Leading German astronomer and member of the Berlin Academy who supported his wife Maria Winkelmann.

Gottfried Leibniz

German philosopher and mathematician, co-inventor of calculus and advocate of rationalism.

Querelles des Femmes

The 'debate about women' regarding women's intellectual ability and proper social roles.

Descartes

French philosopher and mathematician, founder of rationalism, famous for 'I think, therefore I am.'

Francis Bacon

English thinker who developed empiricism and promoted inductive reasoning.

Spinoza

Dutch Jewish philosopher who argued that God and nature are the same (pantheism).

Pascal

French mathematician and religious philosopher known for Pascal's Wager.

The English Royal Society

Independent scientific organization founded in 1660 that promoted experimentation and collaboration.

The French Royal Academy of Sciences

State-sponsored scientific academy founded under Louis XIV to help professionalize science in France.

Journal des Savants

The first scientific journal (1665) that published book reviews, scientific discoveries, and scholarly articles.

John Locke

English philosopher who believed humans are born with natural rights—life, liberty, property.

Isaac Newton

His discoveries suggested the universe was governed by natural laws, inspiring Enlightenment thinkers to apply reason and scientific principles to society, politics, and human behavior.

Montesquieu

French noble and author of The Spirit of the Laws. Advocated separation of powers into executive, legislative, and judicial branches to prevent tyranny. Influenced the U.S. Constitution.

Voltaire

Leading Enlightenment writer. Critic of religious intolerance, superstition, and absolute monarchy. Advocated freedom of speech, freedom of religion, and Enlightened despotism.

Diderot

Editor of the Encyclopédie, which compiled Enlightenment ideas on science, politics, religion, and knowledge. Spread secular and rational thought across Europe.

David Hume

Scottish philosopher of skepticism and empiricism. Argued that human knowledge is based on sense experiences and that reason alone cannot prove religious truths.

Physiocrats

French economists who believed land was the true source of wealth. Opposed mercantilism and emphasized natural economic laws.

Adam Smith

Scottish economist and author of Wealth of Nations. Founder of modern capitalism. Argued for free markets, competition, and the 'invisible hand.'

Laissez-faire

Economic policy of minimal government interference in the economy. Encouraged free trade and opposed mercantilist restrictions.

Baron Paul d'Holbach

Radical Enlightenment philosopher. Promoted atheistic materialism, believing humans are determined by nature and that religion harms human progress.

Marie-Jean de Condorcet

French thinker who believed in the perfectibility of humanity through reason and education. Advocated universal rights, including women's rights.

Rousseau

Geneva-born philosopher. In The Social Contract, argued that political authority rests on the general will. Emphasized natural education and emotion over cold reason.

Mary Astell

Early feminist writer who argued for women's education and criticized male dominance in marriage.

Mary Wollstonecraft

Founder of modern feminism. In Vindication of the Rights of Woman, argued women are equal rational beings deserving education and political rights.

Marie-Thérèse de Geoffrin

Host of influential Parisian salons where philosophes discussed ideas. Helped support and spread Enlightenment culture.

Rococo

18th-century art style characterized by ornamentation, grace, pastel colors, and playful themes. Associated with aristocratic culture before the French Revolution.

Johann Sebastian Bach

Baroque composer known for religious masterpieces, complex fugues, and organ works. Emphasized spiritual depth and technical mastery.

George Frederick Handel

Baroque composer famous for operas and the oratorio Messiah. Known for dramatic, powerful music.

Franz Joseph Haydn

Classical composer who helped develop the symphony and string quartet. Mentor to Mozart.

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

Musical prodigy. Composed operas, symphonies, and concertos with exceptional clarity, emotion, and structure.

Samuel Richardson

English novelist who wrote Pamela. Introduced psychological depth and emotional realism.

Henry Fielding

Satirical novelist who wrote Tom Jones. Criticized hypocrisy and explored human nature.

Philosophe-Historians

Enlightenment writers who used reason, skepticism, and secular analysis to study history rather than religious explanations.

Edward Gibbon

Author of The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Blamed Christianity partly for Rome's fall and used critical historical methods.

High Culture (Education/Universities)

Elite cultural life involving classical art, literature, salons, and formal schooling. Universities increasingly taught science but remained rooted in classical traditions.

Cesare Beccaria

Advocate of rational justice. Opposed torture and capital punishment. Argued punishments should prevent crime and treat people humanely.

Medicine

Medical knowledge improved slowly; hospitals began reforms; Enlightenment brought more scientific approaches to health but still limited by old practices.

Popular Culture

Everyday culture of the masses—festivals, taverns, oral stories, cheap print, and communal traditions. Contrasted with elite high culture.

Institutional Church

Still influential but challenged by Enlightenment secularism. Many thinkers criticized the Church's control and intolerance.

Religious Minorities

Groups like Huguenots, Jansenists, and other Christians who faced legal restrictions or prejudices in various European states.

Jews

Often confined to ghettos and faced discrimination. Enlightenment began early discussions of Jewish emancipation and toleration.

Protestant Revivalism

Movements emphasizing emotional religious experience, personal connection to God, and renewal of faith.

Count Nikolaus von Zinzendorf

Leader of the Moravian movement. Encouraged deep personal devotion to Christ and missionary work.

John Wesley

Founder of Methodism. Preached to large crowds, emphasizing emotional conversion and personal holiness.