Cognition

Memory

learning that has persisted over time, ability to retain knowledge

information processing model

encoding, storage, retrieval

Multi-store processing model

Sensory input —> sensory memory—> short term memory —> long term memory

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

rote rehearsal/shallow processing

Repeating information over and over

Spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study of practice to yield better long-term retention that is achieved through massed study or practice.

testing effect

Test enhanced learning, type of effortful processing

elaborative rehearsal/deep processing

the linking of new information to material that is already known, type of effortful processing

self-reference effect

making things personally meaningful to you, type of effortful processing

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

primacy effect

tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well

recency effect

tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well

visual encoding

the encoding of picture images

acoustic encoding

encoding of sound

semantic encoding

encoding of meaning

Chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

Hierarchies

composed of a few broad concepts divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts

mnemonic devices

memory tricks or strategies to make information easier to remember

loci method

a mnemonic technique that involves associating items or topics with places

peg-word

a mnemonic device in which you associate items to remember with a list of peg words already memorized

sensory memory

First stage of storage that holds large amounts of incoming data (received by receptor cells) for very brief amounts of time

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

working memory (short term memory)

A tiny amount of information from your sensory registers will move to short term memory, information stays briefly, stays in as long as you can rehearse it

long-term memory

the relatively permanent storage of information, capacity is limitless

Explicit (declarative) memories

Type of long term memory in which memories for information we can readily express in words and that we are aware of having

semantic long term memory

Facts and concepts not linked to a particular time

episodic long term memory

memories from personally experienced events.

What area of brain processes explicit long term memories?

Hippocampus

implicit (nondeclarative) memory

Type of long term memory for memories for information that we cannot readily express in words and may not be aware of having

procedural long term memory

motor skills and habits

emotional long term memory

learned emotional responses to various stimuli

What area of brain processes implicit long term memories?

Cerebellum

prospective memory

remembering to do things in the future

Problem with prospective memory

Susceptible to interruptions

Where is working memory processed?

prefrontal cortex and temporal lobe

Where are long-term semantic memories?

Frontal and temporal lobes

Where are episodic memories stored?

frontal and temporal lobes

long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

retention curve

as rehearsal increases, relearning time decreases

Retrieval

Information flows from long-term memory back to working memory

Priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

repetition priming

You are faster reading the word "pretzel" aloud when you have just recently read it.

semantic priming

You are faster and more likely to say the word "nurse" when you have just recently read the word "doctor".

context congruent memory

The enhanced ability to retrieve information when you are in an environment similar to the one in which you encoded the information

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

forgetting curve

graphs retention and forgetting over time

pseudoforgetting

The phenomenon of forgetting something that you never learned.

decay theory

proposes that forgetting occurs because memory traces fade with time

Interference

Forgetting information because of competition from other information

retroactive interference

occurs when new information impairs the retention of previously learned information

proactive interference

occurs when previously learned information interferes with the retention of new information

tip of the tongue phenomenon

temporary inability to remember information

repressed memories

keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious

misinformation effect

Recall of a personally witnessed event is altered by introducing misleading post-event information

encoding bias

When arousal (state of alertness) is high, people tend to narrow their focus to only certain aspects of an event.

Schemas

Framework for understanding a concept

false memories

memories for events that never happened, but were suggested by someone or something

source monitoring

The process of making attributions about the origins of memories.

source monitoring error

occurs when a memory derived from one source is misattributed to another source

anterograde amnesia

Cannot recall events that happen after the onset of the amnesia

retrograde amnesia

Cannot recall events before the amnesia set in

infantile amnesia

Most people cannot remember events prior to the age of 3

Concept

A mental grouping based on shared similarity

prototype

A typical best example incorporating the major features of a concept

image

a mental representation of a sensory experience

convergent thinking

Problem solving to determine a single answer

divergent thinking

Using creativity to determine a number of possible solutions

Algorithm

Step by step process to guarantee a correct solution

Heuristics

mental shortcuts, simplification or generalization to help solve a problem that does not guarantee a correct solution

representativeness heuristic

A heuristic in which a situation is judged on the basis of its resemblance to a stereotypical model

availability heuristic

basing the estimated probability of an event on the ease with which relevant instances come to mind

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

Fixation

a mental set that hinders the solution of a problem

functional fixedness

The inability to think of different uses for objects

comfirmation bias

The tendency to focus on information that supports one's preconceptions (and ignore the evidence that would disprove them)

Overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

Framing

The way an issue or information is worded or presented

Belief Pererverance

clinging to one's initial beliefs even after new information discredits the basis on which they were formed

Gambler's Fallacy

Belief that if something happens more frequently than normal during a given period, it will happen less frequently in the future, or vice versa

sunk cost fallacy

Tendency for people to continue with something we have already invested in when it's clear we should abandon it

Phonemes

Set of basic sounds

Morphemes

Smallest unit of sound with meaning

grammar

A system of rules in a given language that enables us to communicate with and understand others

Semantics

the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences

Syntax

The rules we use to order words into sentences

receptive language

ability to comprehend speech

productive language

ability to produce words

By 4 months...

Babies can read lips and discriminate speech sounds

By 7 months...

Babies can segment spoken sounds into individual words

babbling stage

Infant utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language

By 10 months...

Babbling changes so that the language is identifiable

one-word stage

the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words

two-word stage

beginning at age 2, child speaks mostly in two word statements

telegraphic speech

Stage where a child speaks like a telegram—using mostly nouns and verbs

Overgeneralization/overregularization

misapplication of grammar rules

intuition

Knowing or understanding something without typical conscious cognition

creativity

Novel and useful ideas