Unit 4 - Scientific, Philosophical, & Political Developments

Philosophes

the prominent intellectuals and writers of the 18th-century European Enlightenment, who used reason to critique existing systems and promote ideas like progress, tolerance, and natural rights; key figures include Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau, and Diderot.

Patent of Toleration (1781)

an edict issued by Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II in 1781, which granted limited religious freedom to non-Catholic Christians (like Lutherans, Calvinists, and Orthodox) living within the Habsburg Empire, allowing them to practice their faith while still maintaining Catholicism as the dominant religion

Laissez-faire

an economic policy advocating for minimal government intervention in the market, essentially a "hands-off" approach where the economy is allowed to regulate itself with minimal government interference; the phrase translates to "let it be" in French and is often associated with the Enlightenment era in Europe.

Bourgeoisie

the social class of wealthy middle-class citizens, primarily merchants, bankers, and industrialists, who emerged during the late Middle Ages and gained significant economic and political power during the Enlightenment

Bloodsports

Popular with the eighteenth-century European masses, events such as bull-baiting and cockfighting that involved inflicting violence and bloodshed on animals.

Carnival

Carnival was celebrated in the weeks leading up to the beginning of lent, the forty-day period of fasting preceding easter. Carnival was a time of great indulgence and quite the opposite of Lent. Lent people were supposed to refrain from things such as meat, and other recreations but in Carnival, hearty consumption of food, heavy drinking were the norm. Lastly, Carnival was a time of aggression where people would release built up strong emotions.

Taverns

public houses where people could gather to drink, eat, and socialize, playing a significant role as social hubs in European society throughout the historical period covered in the course, often serving as informal meeting points for political discussions and the exchange of ideas

Voltaire

Voltaire (1694-1778) was a founder of the Enlightenment and believed in the freedom of expression, religion, and the separation of church and state

Deism

a philosophical belief that emerged during the Enlightenment, where people believed in a God who created the universe with natural laws but does not actively intervene in human affairs ("clockmaker"). Essentially placing reason and observation of nature above religious revelation as the primary source of knowledge about God.

John Locke

John Locke is considered a prominent Enlightenment philosopher whose key ideas, particularly his theory of the "social contract" and natural rights to life, liberty, and property, significantly influenced political thought and revolutions, especially the American Revolution, by advocating for government based on the consent of the governed and limitations on absolute power.

"Essay Concerning Human Understanding"

Locke, 1690, human mind has no innate ideas, what people know is not the world but the result of the interactions of the mind with the world

Natural law/rights

John Locke believed people were all born with these; they are life, liberty, and property

Physiocrats

a group of 18th-century French economists who believed that the wealth of a nation came solely from agriculture, advocating for minimal government intervention in the economy (laissez-faire) and considering land as the primary source of wealth, placing a high value on agricultural products

Rococo

an 18th-century artistic style characterized by elaborate ornamentation, pastel colors, playful themes, and a focus on asymmetry and curving forms, often seen in painting, architecture, and furniture, which originated in France as a reaction against the more formal Baroque style

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

a prominent Enlightenment philosopher most recognized for his concept of the "Social Contract," which argues that legitimate government power derives from the collective "general will" of the people, essentially suggesting that citizens should surrender some individual freedoms to the greater good of society as expressed through democratic processes

"General Will"

the collective desire of the people, considered as a unified whole, to act for the common good, a concept popularized by philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau, which essentially means that the legitimate power of a government comes from the will of the people as a whole, not just from a monarch or elite class

Adam Smith

primarily recognized as a Scottish Enlightenment philosopher who is most famous for his book "The Wealth of Nations," where he advocated for the concept of laissez-faire economics, arguing that free market competition and minimal government intervention would naturally lead to economic prosperity, essentially acting like an "invisible hand" guiding the economy; this challenged the prevailing mercantilist economic policies of the time in Europe

"Wealth of Nations"

a book written by Adam Smith, considered a foundational text in economics, which argues that a nation's wealth is best built through free market principles, minimal government intervention, and the "invisible hand" of the market, a concept crucial to understanding the development of capitalism during the Industrial Revolution in Europe

"The Social Contract"

a philosophical concept where individuals agree to give up some of their natural freedoms in exchange for the protection and benefits of living in a society governed by laws, essentially creating an unspoken agreement between citizens and their government

"Spirit of the Laws"

a political treatise written by French philosopher Montesquieu, where it is studied primarily for its concept of "separation of powers" which argues that a government should divide power among different branches to prevent tyranny; it is considered a foundational idea for modern democratic systems, including the US Constitution

Cesare Beccaria

is recognized as an important Enlightenment thinker, primarily known for his influential treatise "On Crimes and Punishments," where he advocated for significant reforms in the criminal justice system, strongly opposing torture and capital punishment, and arguing that punishments should be proportionate to the crime and primarily serve as a deterrent to future offenses

Immanuel Kant

a significant figure recognized as a prominent German philosopher of the Enlightenment era, known for his influential ideas on reason, morality, and the concept of the "categorical imperative," which emphasizes acting based on universal ethical principles

Denis Diderot

was a French philosopher, art critic, and writer. He was a prominent person during the Enlightenment and is best known for serving as co-founder, chief editor, and contributor to the Encyclopedia. Diderot is significant because he helped create the Encyclopedia which inspired many modern day Encyclopedias.

"Encyclopedia"

Encyclopedia, or a Systematic Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts and Crafts, was a general encyclopedia published in France between 1751 and 1772, with later supplements, revised editions, and translations. The Encyclopedia helped spread knowledge about the world which allowed more intellectuals to learn about interesting topics which led to some of these intellectuals questions the monarchy of French which led to the French Revolution.

Baron de Montesquieu

most famous for his political theory of "separation of powers," which he detailed in his book "The Spirit of the Laws," arguing that dividing government power into separate branches (like legislative, executive, and judicial) is the best way to prevent tyranny and protect individual liberties; this concept significantly influenced the design of the United States Constitution

Candide

a satirical novella written by Voltaire, a prominent Enlightenment philosopher, which directly reflects the themes and ideas prevalent during that period in European history, making it a relevant text for understanding the intellectual currents of the time

Salons

Salons were social gatherings held in private homes during the 17th and 18th centuries, primarily in France, where intellectuals, artists, and philosophers came together to discuss ideas, literature, and art

magazines/literacy

a mass reading public came into existence- as governments financed education, more people became literate. Reading material for a mass audience included newspapers, books, magazines, mail-order catalogs, as libraries grew rapidly in number

Childhood

New Enlightenment theories changed European views on childhood- should be a protected period of nurture and development for children to learn, grow, and explore

Benjamin Franklin

He is recognized for his scientific contributions, ideas on self-improvement, and his role in spreading Enlightenment ideals through his writings and public engagement, particularly during his time as a diplomat in France

Thomas Jefferson

Virginian, architect, author, governor, and president and author of the Declaration of Independence, containing many Enlightenment-inspired ideas

Marie-Therese Geoffrin

A French hostess of salon society. 1750-1775. Entertained artists and writers at dinner, sometimes helped them financially and introduced them to persons of influence in high society or in government. Also welcomed foreigners such as Horace Walpole and David Hume from England and Poniatowski from Poland.

John Wesley

English clergyman founder of Methodism, a significant religious movement that emerged in 18th century England

Methodism

a Protestant Christian revival movement that originated in 18th century England, led by John Wesley, which emphasized personal conversion experiences, social reform, and a methodical approach to Christian living, often seen as a reaction to the perceived lack of religious fervor within the established Church of England; key aspects include the belief in the power of the Holy Spirit, lay preaching, and a focus on personal piety and social responsibility.

Grand Tour

a traditional journey across Europe, primarily taken by wealthy young men from Northern Europe, particularly England, during the 17th to early 19th centuries, where they would visit major cities like Paris and Rome to complete their education by experiencing art, culture, and classical antiquity firsthand; essentially a rite of passage for the upper class to broaden their knowledge and social standing.

country house

a place of privacy and indulgence, aristocrats use as vacation, usually Georgian style, lower for public guests, upper for private rooms, sometimes a park or extra land for more seclusion

travel literature

People curious about stories of exotic places the explorers wrote about. People realized that there were highly developed civilizations other places in the world (especially China)

"Emile"

Written by Rousseau as a treatise on the nature of education and the nature of man; a novel on the Enlightened education of children; believed education should focus on natural instincts and curiosity rather than rote memorization of traditional curricula

Infanticide

the practice of intentionally killing infants, which was historically common in many European societies, particularly before the rise of Christianity, where it was often seen as a way to control family size or eliminate unwanted children due to poverty or disability; the spread of Christianity largely contributed to the decline of infanticide in Europe as the religion condemned the practice

Jethro Tull

English inventor advocated the use of horses instead of oxen to plow. Developed the seed drill so that the seeds were planted in straight lines and not scattered; empiricism in agriculture

Agricultural Revolution

a period of significant agricultural advancements in Europe that occurred from the 17th to 18th centuries. Time of advancement in Agriculture; creating new inventions such as the open field system, drainage, and introduced more food variety and greater quantities.

Textile innovations

particularly inventions like the spinning jenny, water frame, flying shuttle, and power loom which significantly mechanized the process of weaving and producing cloth, primarily centered around the British cotton industry

Enlightened monarchs

refers to absolute rulers like Frederick the Great of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, and Joseph II of Austria who embraced Enlightenment ideas by enacting reforms like religious toleration, legal improvements, and education initiatives, while still maintaining their absolute power over their subjects; essentially attempting to rule with "enlightened" principles while holding onto their monarchical authority

Catherine the Great of Russia

An enlightened monarch in Russia; while maintaining absolute power, she actively promoted Enlightenment ideals through reforms like establishing educational institutions for women, codifying laws, encouraging arts and culture, and attempting (though with limited success) to improve the lives of serfs

Joseph II of Austria

Enlightened monarch in Austria; known for his ambitious reforms aimed at modernizing the Habsburg Empire by implementing Enlightenment ideals like religious tolerance, legal reform, and improved conditions for the peasantry

Frederick the Great of Prussia

Enlightened monarch in Prussia; he combined absolute power with progressive reforms that aligned with Enlightenment ideals, including promoting religious tolerance, improving education, modernizing the legal system, and fostering the arts and sciences, all while maintaining a strong centralized government in Prussia

gentry

a social class of landowners who were not considered nobility but still held significant wealth and influence, essentially the upper-middle class with large landholdings, often playing a key role in Parliament and political affairs in countries like England; they were considered "landed gentry" due to their ownership of land

Aristotelian World View

A motionless Earth was fixed as the center of the universe. Around it moved crystal-like spheres in a perfectly circular orbit: the moon, the sun, the known planets, and fixed stars.

- Earth is made up of 4 elements (air, earth, water, fire)

Sir Francis Bacon

(1561-1626) English politician and writer who developed the scientific method and inductive reasoning

- believed knowledge must be gained by observation and experimentation (empiricism)

Tycho Brahe

(1546-1601) Influenced by Copernicus

- built observatory and collected data on the locations of stars and planets for over 20 years

- observed a new star in 1572

- remained unconvinced by heliocentric theory because his limited knowledge of mathematics prevented him from making much sense out of the data.

Nicolas Copernicus

(1473-1543) Polish clergyman

- theorized that sun was the center of the universe and the planets went around it (heliocentric theory)

- Destroyed Aristotle's & Ptolemy's view of the universe

- died soon after publishing his theories

On the Revolution of Heavenly Spheres

Published in 1543 this was Copernicus' work which outlined the heliocentric theory.

Heliocentric theory

the idea that the earth and the other planets revolve around the sun

- sun-centered universe

Rene Descartes

(1596-1650) French philosopher who rejected everything that could not be proven

- the only thing he could prove was that he had a mind - "I think therefore I am"

- emphasized role of doubt in inquiry, but even doubt proves that someone is thinking

- human reason could both unlock secrets of nature and prove the existence of God (a perfect being must have placed that knowledge inside of him) - harmonized new science and old religion

- dual existence of mind and matter (Cartesian dualism)

- discovered analytic geometry

deductive reasoning

reasoning in which a conclusion is reached by stating a general principle and then applying that principle to a specific case

- logic moves from general to specific

- ex. the sun rises every morning; therefore, the sun will rise on Tuesday morning

inductive reasoning

A type of logic in which generalizations are based on a large number of specific observations

- logic moves from specific to general

- ex. Scientific method/empiricism

Empiricism

the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation

Galileo Galilei

(1564-1642) Italian astronomer and mathematician who was the first to use a telescope to study the stars and observed various moons and planets

- confirmed Copernicus' heliocentric theories

- forced to recant by the Catholic Inquisition and placed under house arrest until his death

Dialogue on the 2 Chief Systems of the World

(1632) Written by Galileo, criticizes the church's obstinacy and ignorance towards the new scientific findings during the Scientific Revolution, including the heliocentric theory

- tried by the Inquisition one year after publishing

Starry Messenger

Galileo's treatise of 1610 where he published his celestial observations made with a telescope

Johannes Kepler

(1571-1630) German astronomer and Brahe's assistant who first stated laws of planetary motion

- Wrote 3 laws of planetary motion based on mechanical relationships and accurately predicted movements of planets in a sun-centered universe (built on Copernicus' theories)

- found that planets move in an elliptical orbit, not circular

Natural laws

Principles that govern nature and the way the world works

- often based on mathematical proofs

Isaac Newton

(1642-1727) English mathematician and scientist

- invented differential calculus and formulated the theory of universal gravitation, a theory about the nature of light, and three laws of motion

- proved work of earlier astronomers with math

- universe operated perfectly in motion thanks to God's intervention - saw no conflict between faith and science

Principia

Newton's book which established the law of universal gravitation, which explains both movements on Earth and the motion of the planets

Ptolemy

2nd century Greek astronomer who proposed a geocentric system of the universe

- moon and stars orbited Earth in perfect crystalline circular orbits

- undisputed until Copernicus

- view endorsed by the Catholic church

French Academy of Sciences

Organized body for scientific study, founded in 1666 by royal advisor Jean-Baptiste Colbert

- gave several scientists government stipends

Royal Society of London

Organized body for scientific study, founded in the 1662

- had a royal charter but was completely independent from the government

Robert Hooke, Micrographia

(1635-1703) English polymath who was the one of the first scientists to investigate living things on a micrographic scale

- first to observe "small chambers" in cork and call them cells in his 1665 book "Micrographia"

Anton von Leewenhoek

(1632-1723) Dutch microbiologist who is known as the "Father of Microbiology"

- designed microscopes and was the first to observe and experiment with microbes

Robert Boyle

(1627-1691) Irish chemist who conducted experiments on gases at different temperatures. He is sometimes known as the "Father of Chemistry."

- one of the pioneers of the modern scientific method

Andreas Vesalius

(1514-1564) Flemish scientist who challenged existing medical knowledge and performed illicit dissections to provide detailed overviews of the human body and its systems

- pioneered the study of anatomy

William Harvey

(1578-1657) English physician who used dissection to describe the circulation of the blood to and from the heart

- discovered that the heart worked like a pump and obeyed mechanical laws

Margaret Cavendish

(1623-1673) English noblewoman and philosopher, poet, writer, and scientist

- unusual in her time for publishing extensively in natural philosophy and science

- became first woman allowed to attend a meeting of the Royal Society of London and criticized Robert Boyle and the use of microscopes

Maria Winkelmann

1670-1720 German astronomer and wife/assistant of acclaimed astronomer Gottfried Kirch

- discovered a comet and made other discoveries independent of her husband

- barred from the Royal Academy of Sciences due to her gender.

Scientific Method

a formal series of steps in which one could form a hypothesis, test the hypothesis, and develop a conclusion based on that test.

Rococo

an artistic movement characterized by ornate detail, lightness, and elegance, prevalent in the 18th century

• often associated with decorative arts, architecture, and interior design, emphasizing asymmetry and soft colors

• themes of aristocratic leisure, love, and pleasure with pastels, gold, and ornamentation often featuring playful themes and curves.

• Ex. “The Swing” by Fragonard

Neoclassicism

an artistic movement inspired by Classical art and culture, emphasizing simplicity, symmetry, and proportion, prevalent in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It sought to revive the ideals of Ancient Greece and Rome, often showcasing themes of heroism and virtue.

• ex. “Oath of Horatii” by Jacques-Louis David