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Brain Imaging
Used to visualize the structure or function of the brain.
Computed Tomography (CT)
Radiation (x-rays) of the head taken from different directions.
Advantages of CT
Fast, structural images.
Disadvantages of CT
Exposure to radiation.
Application of CT
Clinical: Brain injury.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
Uses magnetic fields and radio waves to create images.
Advantages of MRI
No radiation exposure, more detail in soft tissue (brain).
Disadvantages of MRI
Slower, louder, confining, can't use with metal in body.
Applications of MRI
Clinical imaging of brain for many reasons; broad research use.
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
Magnetic field detects changes in oxygenation of blood.
Increased neuron activity
Increased blood flow.
Advantages of fMRI
No shots, ingested substances, or radiation.
Disadvantages of fMRI
Poor temporal resolution.
Applications of fMRI
Research; clinical changes in blood flow (stroke).
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
Measures emissions of radioactively labeled chemicals.
Advantages of PET
Can see glucose use in the whole brain/body at rest; ability to study brain physiology and chemistry.
Disadvantages of PET
Radiation exposure; injections; poor temporal resolution.
Applications of PET
Clinical: Measurement of brain activity or protein accumulation to diagnose disease; research in clinical trials.
Electroencephalography (EEG)
Detects waves of electrical activity in the brain.
Advantages of EEG
Simple, non-invasive, inexpensive; good temporal resolution.
Disadvantages of EEG
Poor spatial resolution; background noise.
Applications of EEG
Clinical: evaluate brain disorders- epilepsy, stroke, tumor, narcolepsy; research: broad uses.
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)
Magnetic field is used to excite neurons.
Advantages of TMS
Non-invasive, relatively safe.
Disadvantages of TMS
Some risk of side effects.
Neuropathology
Study of brain tissue to diagnose disease.
Brain-to-brain communication
A method of communication where one brain's activity is recorded and another brain is stimulated.
Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE)
A neurodegenerative disease associated with the accumulation of tau protein.
Brain-Machine Interfaces
Technologies that enable direct communication between the brain and external devices.
Sender in Brain-Machine Interfaces
The brain activity recorded with EEG.
Receiver in Brain-Machine Interfaces
The brain that is stimulated with TMS.
Neuralink
A company focused on developing implantable brain electrodes.
CRISPR
Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats
DNA cutting system
Guide RNA (gRNA) recognizes a sequence of DNA and a protein (Cas9) breaks the DNA
Cell can repair the DNA (usually makes mistakes that mutate the gene) or donor DNA can be provided to fill in the broken spot
Being used to develop “gene therapies” for genetic diseases and cancer therapies
Cognitive Enhancers
Chemicals or devices that improve cognitive ability.
Prescription drugs for cognitive enhancement
Examples include Amphetamine (Adderall), methylphenidate (Ritalin), and Modafinil (Provigil).
Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS)
A brain stimulation technique that uses electrical currents to modulate neuronal activity.
Neuroscience Research in Animals
Research conducted on animals to understand human brain mechanisms.
Editing Germline DNA
Making genetic changes that are heritable by editing a 1 cell embryo.
Potential diseases curable by germline editing
Huntington's Disease, early-onset Alzheimer's, Muscular Dystrophy, and Cystic Fibrosis.
fMRI Imaging as a Lie Detector
Studies that observe differences in brain activation during truth and deception.
BRAIN Initiative
A mission to map and measure the brain's circuits and explore ethical implications of new technology (Brain Research Through Advancing Innovative Neurotechnolgies)
Neuroethics
The study of ethical issues arising from neuroscience research and applications.
Incidental findings in brain scans
What to do when unexpected results appear in brain scans of normal research subjects.
Guide RNA (gRNA)
Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats
DNA cutting system
Guide RNA (gRNA) recognizes a sequence of DNA and a protein (Cas9) breaks the DNA
Cell can repair the DNA (usually makes mistakes that mutate the gene) or donor DNA can be provided to fill in the broken spot
Cas9 protein
A protein that cuts DNA at a specific location as directed by gRNA.
Neuroethical Topics
Topics include cognitive enhancers, animal research, germline DNA editing, and fMRI imaging as a lie detector.
Fludoxyglucose (FDG)
PET measures glucose use
More glucose used = more brain activity
Mind controlled robotic limbs and exoskeletons
Motor cortex activity is recorded with implanted electrodes or EEG
Pattern of activity is used to train and instruct robotics
Jan Scheuermann feeds herself chocolate with a robotic arm
Amphetamine (Adderall), methylphenidate (Ritalin), Modafinil (Provigil)
Increase dopamine and/or epinephrine in basal ganglia and frontal cortex
May affect motivation, energy, confidence more than cognition
Applications of TMS
Research, treatment.
