Combined Sociology Flashcards for Final work in progress

Social Group

2 or more people who identify and interact with one another and share a common identity

Primary Group

A small social group whose members share personal and long lasting relationships

Secondary Group

A large and impersonal social group whose members pursue a specific goal or activity

Leaders

People who influence the behaviors, opinions, or attitudes of others

Instumental leadership

Group leadership that focuses on the completion of tasks

Expressive leadership

Group leadership that focuses on the groups well-being

Leadership style

The style a leader uses to achieve goals or elicit action from group members

Democratic leader

A leader who encourages group participation and consensus-building before moving into action

Laissez-Faire leader

A hands-off leader who allows members of the group to make their own decisions

Authoritarian leader

A leader who issues orders and assigns tasks

Conformity

The degree to which we will change our behavior, attitudes, and points of view to fit into our perceived expectation of what is appropriate

Groupthink

A narrowing of thought by a group of people, leading to the perception that there is only one correct answer and that to even suggest alternatives is a sign of disloyalty

Reference group

A group whose standards we refer to as we evaluate ourselves

In-group

A social group toward which a member feels respect and loyalty

Out-group

A social group which a person feels a sense of competition or opposition

In-group bias

The feeling that the in-group is superior to others

Out-group bias

The feeling that the out-groups are unreasonable

Dyad

The smallest possible group, consisting of two people

Triad

A group of three people

Coalition

The alignment of some members of a group against others

Arbitrator/mediator

Someone who tries to settle disagreements between the other two

Social network

The social ties radiating outward from the self that link people together

Formal organization

A large secondary group organized to achieve its goals efficiently

Utilitarian organizations

Organizations that are joined to fill a specific material need

Normative or voluntary organizations

Organizations that people join to pursue shared interests or because they provide some intangible rewards

Coercive organizations

Organizations that people do not voluntarily join such as a prison

Bureaucracy

A formal organization with hierarchy of authority and a clear division of labor; emphasis on impersonality of positions and written rules, communications, and records

Alienation

Marx’s term for workers lack of connection to the product of their labor; caused by workers being assigned repetitive tasks on a small part of a product, which leads to a sense of powerlessness and normlessness; others use the term in the general sense of not feeling a part of something

Bureaucratic Inefficiency

The failure of a formal organization to carry out the work it exists to perform

Bureaucratic Inertia

The tendency of bureaucratic organizations to perpetuate themselves

Goal displacement

An organization replacing old goals with new ones; also known as goal replacement

Oligarchy

The rule of the many by the few

Iron law of oligarchy

Robert Micheals term for the tendency of formal organizations to be dominated by a small, self-perpetuating elite

Iron cage

Max Weber’s pessimistic description of modern life, in which we are caught in bureaucratic structures that control our lives through rigid rules and rationalization

Deviance

Behavior that violates the norms of a social group

Juvenile delinquency

Illegal behavior committed by individuals who are legally minors

Status Crimes

Behaviour considered criminal only when performed by members of a particular social status

Index crime

Crime considered as major by the FBI, including murder, rape, robbery, etc.

White-collar crime

Crime committed by middle class and upper class people in the course of an otherwise legal occupation, including fraud, tax evasion, etc.

Victimless crimes

Crimes in which there is no victim but the criminal

Differential association theory

A theory of deviance that explains deviant acts as involving a change in attitudes of the deviant acquired through association with other deviants

Subculture

Specific objects, skills, ideas, beliefs, and patterns of behavior unique to specific groups within a larger culture

Deviant subculture

A subculture viewed by both its members and outsiders as having norms and values fundamentally, and often threateningly, different from those of the general culture

Labeling theory

A theory of deviance that views deviance as a label assigned to behavior and individuals by particular figures of authority

Primary deviance

The commission of a deviant act without the knowledge of others, particularly those with the authority to label deviance.

Secondary Deviance

Deviance that is labeled as such; the individual is treated as a deviant

Anomie

A state of normlessness in a society, when many people are unclear about what is expected of them

Anomie theory

A theory of deviance that explains varieties of deviant acts as responses to the socially produced strain of anomie

Social control theory

A theory of deviance that explains deviant behavior as either a break-down in the socialization process or a loosening of ties within social groups to the point that others do not constrain the acts of the deviant individual

Radical theory

As applied to deviance, a theory that sees social control as an attempt by the ruling class of society to maintain its dominance.

Power

The probability for control over the behavior of others

Authority

The probability for control over the behavior of others based on their belief in the right of the authority figure to issue others

Definition of the situation

As defined by W. I. Thomas, the concept that social reality is a matter of definition; if members of a social group agree to the reality of anything, then it will be real in its consequences

Social reality

The social norms, values, knowledge, and so that define a given situation

Boundary maintenance

Any behavior that reminds the members of a social group of the boundaries between their group and others, distinguishing between ‘us’ and ‘them’. Increases group solidarity

Plea bargaining

The result of a bargaining session between the public defender and the prosecution, in which the prosecution agrees to lessen the charge against the defendant in exchange for a guilty plea

Miller (1970) - characteristics of deviant subcultures 

• Trouble: arising from frequent conflict 

• Toughness: value placed on size and strength 

• Smartness: ability to succeed on streets 

• A need for excitement: the search for thrills, risk, or danger 

• A belief in fate: a sense that people have no control over their own lives 

• A desire for freedom: often expressed as anger toward authority figures

Retrospective labeling

A reinterpretation of the person's past considering some present deviance

Projective Labeling

Using a deviant identity to predict the person’s future actions

Robert Merton’s Strain Theory

We are quite successful in getting almost everyone to want cultural goals, success of some sort, such as wealth or prestige. However, we are unsuccessful in equalizing access to institutionalized means

Conformists

People who obey social rules and sometimes work at low paying jobs with small chances of advancement

Innovation

People who accept the goals of society but use illegitimate means to try to reach them

Ritualism

Taken by people who become discouraged and give up on achieving cultural goals yet still cling to conventional rules of conduct

Retreatism

Rejecting both cultural goals and institutionalized means of achieving them

Rebellion

People who are convinced that their society is corrupt, like retreatists reject both society's goals and the institutionalized means of achieving them. 

4 specific characteristics that sociologists use to define deviance

Linked to time

Linked to cultural values

A cultural universal

A social construct

Social capital

a sociological concept that refers to the individual and collective resources available to a person. Includes the institutions, relationships, attitudes, and values that influence interactions among people and contribute to economic and social development. A combination of internal and external resources.

Milgram’s research 

People are likely to follow the directions of authority figures and groups of normal people, even when it means harming another person. 

Asch’s Research 

Found that many people are willing to compromise their own judgement to avoid the discomfort of being different, even from people who don’t know. 

Sociology

The systematic study of human society

Social integration

the degree to which members of a group or a society feel united by shared values and other social bonds; it is also known as social cohesion

Theory

A general statement about how some parts of the world fit together and how they work. An explanation of how two or more facts are related to each other.

Theoretical approach

a basic image of society that guides thinking and research

Paradigm

a set of assumptions, theories, and perspectives that makes up a way of understanding social reality.

Social structure

Any relatively stable pattern of social behavior

Social functions

The consequences of a social pattern for the operation of society as a whole.

Structural-functional approach

a framework for building theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability.

Macro approach

An orientation that’s main focus is on a larger social interaction than on each individual

Micro level orientation

An orientation with a close-up focus on social interaction in specific situations.

Manifest functions

The recognized and intended consequences of any social pattern

Latent functions

The unrecognized and unintended consequences of any social patterns

Social dysfunction

Any social pattern that may disrupt the operation of society

Social-conflict approach

a framework for building theory in which society is viewed as composed of groups that are competing for scarce resources

The means of production

The tools, factories, land, and investment capital used to produce wealth

Gender-conflict theory

The study of society that focuses on inequality and conflict between women and men

Feminism

support of social equality for women and men, in opposition to patriarchy and sexism

Race conflict approach

a point of view that focuses on inequality and conflict between people of different racial and ethnic categories

Social interaction

people consciously or unconsciously adjust their behavior in other people’s presence to fit various social situations

Symbol

anything that carries a particular meaning recognized by people who share a culture

Symbolic-interaction approach

a framework for building theory that sees society as the product of the everyday interactions of individuals

Qualitative research

Research that works with nonnumerical data

Quantitative research

research that translates the social world into numbers that can be treated mathematically, often looking for cause and effect relationships.

Social interaction

the process by which people act and reach in relation to others.

Status

The responsibilities and benefits that a person experiences according to their rank and role in society

Status set

All the statuses one holds simultaneously

Ascribed status

A social position a person receives at birth or takes involuntarily later in life

Achieved status

A social position a person takes on voluntarily that reflects personal ability and effort

Master status

One status within our status set that stands our or overwhelms the others

Role

The duties and behaviors expected of someone who holds a particular status

Role set

A number of different roles attached to a single status