chapter 1-10 historical perspectives in chemistry

Fire allowed early humans to __________ food, harden clay, extract metals, and create new materials like glass and ceramics.

cook

The Sumerians used __________, a process that involves heating ores with carbon, to extract metals like copper and tin.

smelting

The four-element theory—earth, water, air, and fire —was proposed by the Ancient Greek school of thought associated with ___________.

Empedocles

__________ introduced the idea that all matter is composed of indivisible particles called atoms.

Democritus

Alchemists sought to transmute base metals into __________, create the Philosopher’s Stone for immortality, and discover the Elixir of Life.

gold

Alchemists guarded their knowledge to maintain exclusivity and protect their discoveries, leading to a perception of alchemy as __________.

mystical

The Museum at Alexandria founded by Ptolemy functioned as a center of __________ and research.

learning

Mary the Jewess was an early alchemist credited with inventing important laboratory equipment, such as the __________.

bain-marie

Hannibal allegedly used vinegar to weaken rocks and __________ a path for his army.

clear

Galen’s dissections and medical theories influenced medicine for centuries, though many were flawed due to his reliance on __________ anatomy.

animal

Some theories suggest lead poisoning from pipes and cookware contributed to the __________ of Rome by causing widespread neurological damage.

decline

Islamic alchemists developed early formulations of __________, particularly using saltpeter (potassium nitrate).

gunpowder

Theophilus wrote __________, a text documenting medieval techniques in metallurgy, glassmaking, and pigment production.

De Diversis Artibus

Scholasticism combined logic and philosophy, particularly Aristotelian principles, with __________ to form a structured method of inquiry.

theology

Albert the Great defended Aristotle’s scientific ideas while also acknowledging the potential of __________ to transform matter.

alchemy

Trade routes facilitated the exchange of ideas, materials, and technologies between civilizations, spreading advancements in __________ and chemistry.

alchemy

Iatrochemistry was the application of chemical principles to __________, first developed in Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries.

medicine

_______ rejected traditional Galenic medicine and pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medical treatments.

Paracelsus

Andreas Libavius wrote __________, the first systematic chemistry textbook, which detailed laboratory methods and equipment.

Alchemia

Movable type allowed scientific texts to be __________, accelerating the spread of chemical knowledge and experimental methods.

mass-produced

The development of air pumps, closed experimental chambers, and precise __________ helped early chemists study gases systematically.

balances

Descartes emphasized rationalism and deductive reasoning, while Bacon promoted the empirical scientific method based on __________.

observation

Van Helmont conducted a __________ tree experiment, concluding that plant growth came primarily from water.

willow

Boyle’s Law states that the pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to its __________ at constant temperature.

volume

Pneumatic chemists viewed different gases as distinct substances rather than variations of a common __________ state, as understood today.

gaseous

The phlogiston theory proposed that combustible materials contained an invisible substance called __________, which was released during burning.

phlogiston

Joseph Priestley developed a method for __________ water, leading to the creation of modern soda.

carbonating

__________ demonstrated that water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen by igniting hydrogen in air and producing water as a result.

Cavendish

What were the two main outcomes of the Chemical Revolution?

rejection of phlogiston theory, development of modern nomenclature

Lavoisier proved that water is not an element but a __________ of hydrogen and oxygen, disproving ancient elemental theories.

compound

Marie Anne Pierrette Paulze Lavoisier translated scientific texts, illustrated experiments, and assisted in laboratory __________, contributing significantly to Lavoisier’s work.

research

Lavoisier named oxygen as the __________-forming principle, though not all acids contain oxygen, making the term misleading.

acid

Berthollet observed reversible chemical reactions, laying the groundwork for the concept of chemical __________.

equilibrium

_____ assigned relative atomic weights based on the assumption that atoms combine in simple whole-number ratios.

Dalton

______ proposed that compounds form through the attraction between positively and negatively charged atoms or radicals.

Berzelius

______ introduced modern chemical symbols using one or two letters from the Latin names of elements.

Berzelius

______ emphasized careful, repeated experimentation and rejected findings that could not be reliably reproduced.

Klaproth

The Royal Institution was founded by ______________ to promote applied science and public education.

Benjamin Thompson (Count Rumford)