Sociology 101: Introduction to Sociology Study Guide for Exam 4

A comprehensive set of 63 flashcards covering key concepts from Sociology 101: Introduction to Sociology, including groups, organizations, social networks, politics, and globalization.

Social Groups

Collections of individuals who interact and share a sense of unity.

Ingroups

Groups with which an individual identifies. They often provide a sense of belonging and loyalty to their members.

Outgroups

Groups that an individual does not identify with. They may be perceived as different or alien and can often lead to feelings of rivalry or competition.

Primary Groups

Small, close-knit groups characterized by intimate, face-to-face interaction. They are fundamental in socialization and emotional support.

Secondary Groups

Larger, more impersonal groups focused on specific goals. They typically involve less emotional investment and more formal relationships, such as work or community organizations.

Reference Groups

Groups that individuals use as a standard for self-evaluation. They influence attitudes, behaviors, and social identity, providing a framework for comparison.

Georg Simmel

Sociologist known for his work on the effects of group size on interaction. He analyzed how individuals behave differently in small versus large groups, introducing concepts like dyads and triads.

Dyads

Groups of two individuals. They are the simplest form of social group, characterized by direct and personal relationships.

Triads

Groups of three individuals. They introduce more complex dynamics than dyads, as relationships can form between multiple members, allowing for coalition formation and more varied interactions.

Milgram’s Study of Obedience

Experiment demonstrating the psychological tendency to obey authority. Participants administered shocks to others at the direction of the experimenter, even when they were uncomfortable with the actions.

Janis’s Study of Groupthink

Research showing the tendency of group members to conform to consensus opinions. This can lead to poor decision-making as dissenting viewpoints are suppressed in favor of harmony.

Asch’s Study of Group Conformity

Experiment illustrating the influence of group pressure on individual behavior. Participants chose incorrect answers in line with group consensus, revealing the power of social influence on perception and decision-making.

Classical Theories of Organization

Traditional frameworks analyzing how organizations are structured. These theories emphasize hierarchical structures, formal rules, and control mechanisms to improve efficiency and productivity in organizations.

Contemporary Theories of Organization

Modern frameworks that explore new organizational forms and dynamics. These theories examine factors like flexibility, innovation, and employee involvement in decision-making.

Formal Relations

Officially acknowledged relationships within an organization. These relationships are defined by job roles, responsibilities, and established protocols, which guide interactions and workflows among employees.

Informal Relations

Relationships that exist outside the formal structure of an organization. These relationships are often built on personal connections, social interactions, and communication among employees.

Social Capital

The resources available to individuals and groups through social connections. It includes benefits such as trust, cooperation, and access to information, which can enhance individual and collective outcomes.

Social Networks

Structures made up of individuals or organizations connected through relationships. These networks facilitate the flow of information, resources, and support, influencing behaviors and opportunities in various social contexts.

Graph Theory

Mathematical study of graphs, useful for analyzing social networks.

Nodes

Individual actors within a network. They can represent people, organizations, or entities that are connected through various relationships, facilitating the analysis of interactions and influences within social structures.

Edges (Ties)

Connections between nodes in a network. These can represent various types of relationships, such as friendships, collaborations, or communication pathways, and are crucial for understanding the dynamics of social networks.

Sociograms

Visual representations of social networks. They depict nodes and edges to illustrate relationships and connections among individuals or groups within a social structure.

Stanley Milgram’s Small World Problem

Study exploring the connectedness of social networks. It demonstrated that any two people in the world could be connected through a chain of acquaintances, typically around six degrees of separation. This phenomenon highlights the small-world effect in social networks.

Mark Granovetter’s The Strength of Weak Ties

Theory emphasizing the value of weak social ties. These can provide unique information and access to diverse networks that strong ties may not offer, thus promoting social mobility and resource access.

Peter Bearman et al.’s Chains of Affection

Study analyzing connections in personal relationships. It illustrates how affection and emotional bonds interact and shape social structures, highlighting the importance of close and distant relationships in social dynamics.

Miller McPhearson et al. The Ties that Bind Are Fraying

Research on the weakening of social ties over generations. It investigates how changes in family structure, work patterns, and technology are contributing to reduced emotional and social connections among individuals.

Nation-States

Political entities characterized by a defined territory and sovereignty. They blend cultural identity and political organization, often linked by common language, ethnicity, or history.

Traditional States

Political systems with historical continuity and established governance. They often reflect long-standing cultures and institutions, maintaining authority over a specific territory and population.

Citizenship Rights

Legal rights and responsibilities associated with being a member of a state.

Nationalism

Ideology emphasizing loyalty and devotion to a nation. It advocates for national independence and unity, often prioritizing the interests of the nation over others.

Participatory Democracy

Political system encouraging active participation by citizens. It promotes engagement in decision-making and governance, fostering a sense of community and collective responsibility.

Constitutional Monarchy

Political system where a monarch's powers are limited by law. In this system, the monarchy coexists with a constitution that outlines the rights and responsibilities of both the government and the citizens.

Liberal Democracy

Political system characterized by free and fair elections, plus civil liberties. It ensures the protection of individual rights and freedoms while promoting equal participation in the political process.

Communism

Political and economic ideology advocating for classless society and communal ownership. It seeks to eliminate private property and distribute resources equitably among all members of society.

Populism

Political approach that seeks to represent the interests of ordinary people. It often opposes the elite and established institutions, emphasizing direct appeal to the populace.

Authoritarianism

Political system characterized by concentration of power in a leader or elite. It often suppresses political opposition and civil liberties, limiting democratic processes and individual freedoms.

Political Parties

Organizations that seek to gain power and influence government policy. They typically represent specific ideologies or interests and mobilize voters in elections.

Interest Groups

Organizations that advocate for specific causes or policies. They aim to influence policymakers and public opinion in their favor.

Democratic Elitism

Theory suggesting that democracies are ruled by a small number of elites. They maintain control through influence and decision-making, while the general populace participates primarily through voting.

Pluralism

Political theory advocating for multiple competing groups in decision-making. It posits that power is distributed among various factions, ensuring that no single group dominates.

Power Elite

Theory proposing that a small group of people control the majority of power.

Corporate Conservative Coalition

An alliance of corporate interests and conservative political values. This influences policy to favor business interests while promoting traditional values, impacting the political landscape significantly.

Liberal Labor Coalition

Alliance of labor unions. This advocates for workers' rights, social justice, and progressive policies, aiming to influence legislation in favor of labor interests.

Corporate Interlocks

Connections formed by individuals holding multiple corporate board positions. These facilitate communication and coordination among firms, often influencing corporate governance and decision-making processes.

Globalization

The process of increasing interconnectedness among countries. It involves the exchange of goods, services, information, and cultural practices, leading to economic integration and interdependence on a global scale.

Social Change

Transformations in social structures and cultural patterns over time.

Social Movements

Collective efforts to promote or resist social change. These often mobilize groups of people to advocate for issues such as civil rights, environmental concerns, or political reform.

Economic Deprivation Theory

Theory explaining social movements as responses to economic inequality. It suggests that individuals facing economic hardship are more likely to mobilize for social change, as they seek to address grievances related to resource distribution and inequity.

Resource Mobilization Theory

Framework analyzing how social movements gather resources and support. It emphasizes the importance of resources such as money, time, and skills in the organization and effectiveness of social movements.

Political Opportunity Theory

Theory that focuses on the political context affecting social movements. It argues that the likelihood of successful mobilization is influenced by factors such as political climate, institutional structures, and the openness of political opportunities.

Framing Analysis Theory

Approach examining how issues are presented and interpreted in social movements. It highlights the significance of language, symbols, and narratives in shaping public perception and mobilization efforts.

New Social Movements

Recent movements focusing on identity, culture, and human rights. They often emerge in response to global changes and aim to address issues beyond traditional economic concerns.

Civil Society

Space for social interaction, organizations, and public participation outside the state. It includes non-profit organizations, community groups, and social movements that advocate for various issues, fostering civic engagement and democracy.

Drivers of Globalization

Advancements in technology, trade liberalization, and increased communication, which facilitate the flow of goods, services, and information across borders.

Effects of Globalization

Consequences resulting from increased global interconnectedness. These effects can impact economies, cultures, and social structures, leading to both positive and negative outcomes.

Social aggregates

Collections of individuals who share a common characteristic or experience, often coming together by chance or circumstance, but not forming a cohesive group.

Social categories

Groups based on shared traits or characteristics, such as gender, age, or social class, that provide a way to classify people within society.

States

Political entities with defined borders, governments, and the capacity to enforce laws and policies over their territory and citizens.

Citizenship

The status of being a member of a nation or state, entitling individuals to specific rights and responsibilities. It often includes participation in civic life and the legal protections afforded by the government.