Cities & Suburbs Final

Plessy v. Ferguson

- 1890 Supreme Court Case that upheld racial segregation under the "separate but equal" doctrine (legitimized facilities like separate drinking fountains)
- ruling ultimately entrenched systemic racial division until later overturned by Brown v. Board of Education

14th Amendment

- guarantees equal protection under the law and was often cited in legal challenges against racial segregation and discrimination
- despite its promise, cases like Plessy v. Ferguson showed how its enforcement was historically limited

Thurgood Marshall

- leading civil rights lawyer who successfully argued Brown v. Board of Education before becoming first Black Supreme Court Justice
- legal work was important in dismantling legalized racial segregation

Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

- landmark Supreme Court case that overturned Plessy v. Ferguson, ruling that segregation in public schools was inherently unequal
- became a catalyst for the broader Civil Rights Movement

Southern Manifesto

- 1956 document signed by southern politicians pledging to resist the desegregation mandated by Brown v. Board of Ed
- reflected widespread regional opposition to federal civil rights rulings

The Civil Rights Act (1964)

- outlawed segregation in public places and banned employment discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin
- one of the most significant legislative achievements of the Civil Rights Movement

"de jure" vs. "de facto" segregation

"de jure": segregation refers to racial separation enforced by law

"de facto": segregation occurs through social, economic, or residential patterns

- Brown v. Board targeted de jure segregation, but de facto segregation remains a major challenge

Swann v. Charlotte Mecklenburg (1971)

- upheld the use of busing as a legitimate tool to achieve school integration
- reinforced federal authority to remedy racial segregation in public schools even after Brown

integration busing and anti-busing protests (ROAR)

- aimed to racially balance schools but instead sparked intense anti-busing protests, such as those organized by ROAR (Restore Our Alienated Rights) in Boston
- protests highlighted the enduring tensions over race and education in northern cities

Ocean Hill-Brownsville School Controversy

- 1968-involved a conflict between efforts for community control of public schools and the teachers' union, leading to strikes and racial tensions
- revealed deep divides over race, power, and education in NYC

Jon Butler

- "God in Gotham"
- examines how Protestant reformers adapted religion to urban contexts like NYC, drawing parallels to early European urban religious leaders
- emphasizes the dynamic religious changes in the growing American metropolis

Max Weber and Secularization Thesis

- Foundational sociologist, argued in his secularization thesis that modernity leads to the “disenchantment of the world,” where rationalization, science, and bureaucratic structures replace the influence of religion​

- Believed urbanization and capitalism would weaken traditional religious authority, a view later challenged by scholars like Jon Butler who showed that religion adapted and persisted in modern cities

Parish Plant

- refers to entire campus of a Catholic parish-church, school, rectory, and community spaces that are developed together as a focal point for suburban Catholic life
- structure encourages home buying and rooted religious identity in postwar suburbs

Father Divine

- Was a religious entrepreneur who organized political protests against lynching and created communal "heavens" for his followers
- responded to the needs of Black urban communities and moved from Harlem to Philadelphia after a number of scandals

Elijah Muhammad

- founded the Nation of Islam in 1934, growing it from 4 to 52 mosques by 1960
- teachings combined Black empowerment with religious revival in urban centers like Chicago

Tri-Faith America

- Interchurch Center, 1958
- refers to the postwar ideal of religious cooperation among Protestants, Catholics, and Jews, symbolized by institutions like the Interchurch Center built in 1958
- model reflected efforts to present the U.S. as religiously inclusive during the Cold War

Abraham Joshua Hescel

- Jewish Theological Seminary
- author of "Man is Not Alone"
- taught at the Jewish Theological Seminary and advocated for spiritual renewal and social justice
- famously marched alongside MLK Jr. in civil rights protests

Dorothy Day

- Catholic worker
- founded the Catholic Worker movement, which combined direct aid to the poor with nonviolent activism for social justice
- her work challenged both secular and religious institutions to better serve the marginalized

Adam Clayton Powell

- Abyssinian Baptist Church of Harlem
- pastor of Abyssinian Baptist Church in Harlem, became a prominent political leader advocating for civil rights and economic justice
- church served as both a spiritual and political hub in Black NY

Reinhold Niebuhr

- Union Theological, Christian Century
- theologian at Union Theological Seminary, wrote for the Christian Century and emphasized Christian realism, stressing the moral complexities of politics and social life
- his ideas influenced mid 20th century political thought on ethics and democracy

Norman Vincent Peale

- Collegiate Church, Power of Positive Thinking
- pastor at New York's Marble Collegiate Church, became famous for The Power of Positive Thinking, promoting a blend of Christianity and optimism
- his message resonated with postwar Americans seeking self-confidence and success

Archbishop Fulton Sheen

- "Life is Worth Living"
- was a Catholic bishop known for his popular TV show, Life is Worth Living
- the show presented religious teachings in a relatable way to a broad audience
- he helped make Catholicism more visible and accessible in postwar America

Billy Graham

- New York Crusade, 1957
- 1957 New York Crusade drew over 2 million attendees, showcasing the postwar religious revival
- his evangelical style emphasized personal salvation and reflected growing suburban religious energy

John McGreevy

- authored "Parish Boundaries"
- argues that Catholic theology and church structure caused Catholics to suburbanized more slowly than Jews or Protestants
- his work highlights how parish identity shaped patterns of urban and suburban life

baby boom...religious revival...church building boom

- following WW2, the Baby Boom coincided with a religious revival where church membership soared, increasing from 40% to 63% of the U.S. population
- this surge led to a massive church building boom, quadrupling expenditures on new religious structures by the late 1950s

Reverend Robert Schuller

- Garden Grove Community Church
- pioneered preaching at drive in theaters in Garden Grove, California later founding the famous Crystal Cathedral
- his ministry promoted "possibility thinking" and prosperity gospel themes aligned with suburban optimism

New York Regents Prayer and Engel v. Vitale (1962)

- the Supreme Court struck down the New York Regents' composed prayer, ruling it unconstitutional to have official school led prayers
- this case marked a major victory for separation of church and state

William Whyte...Jane Jacobs and Lewis Mumford

- Were influential critics of postwar urban planning and suburban development

- Whyte (The Organization Man) examined corporate conformity; Jacobs (The Death and Life of Great American Cities) championed walkable, diverse neighborhoods; Mumford (The City in History) warned against dehumanizing urban sprawl

Herbert Gans

- Sociologist who challenged negative stereotypes of suburban life in his book The Levittowners

- argued that suburban residents were not mindless conformists but formed meaningful communities with diverse values and social ties

Don’John Keats … Sloan Wilson … Richard Yates … John Cheever

- mid-20th-century writers who critiqued the emotional emptiness and conformity of suburban life

- Through works like The Crack in the Picture Window (Keats), The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit (Wilson), Revolutionary Road (Yates), and short stories by Cheever, they revealed the disillusionment beneath the postwar American Dream

Malvina Reynolds

- sang "Little Boxes" (1963) which satirized suburban conformity and materialism, describing mass-produced homes and lives
- captured growing cultural critique of suburban sprawl during the 1960s

Taxi Driver...Escape from New York...The Warriors

- films like these portrayed cities as dystopian spaces of violence, decay, and alienation
- these movies reflected post 1960s urban fears and anxieties

Stokely Carmichael

- was a civil rights leader who popularized the term "Black Power" and advocated for a more militant approach after frustrations with gradual integration
- his activism represented a shift toward Black nationalism within the broader movement

Harlem Riots (1964)

- the Harlem Riots of 1964 erupted after the police killing of a Black teenager, leading to 6 nights of unrest that left 118 injured and caused $1 million in property damage
- they marked the start of a wave of urban rebellions across the U.S.

Watts (1965)

- in Los Angeles (1965) involved 6 days of violence after a police confrontation, resulting in 34 deaths and $40 million in damages
- one of the most destructive uprisings of the 1960s

Plainfield, NJ and Augurs Linward Cathcart

- Black residents rose up against systemic oppression, and police officer Linward Cathcart was killed

the Kerner Commission

- Formed after the 1967 riots, concluded that America was moving toward "two societies, one black, one white-separate and unequal"

- blamed systemic racism, poverty, and police brutality for the unrest

1968: MLK Assassination ... Columbia University protests ... DNC Convention in Chicago

- the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. in 1968 triggered national riots, while Columbia University protests and the violent clashes as the Democratic National Convention in Chicago highlighted widespread disillusionment with authority
- these events symbolized the fragmentation of the Civil Rights Movement and New Left

white ethnic revival

- late 1960s and 1970s saw working-class European Americans assert pride in their heritage amid fears of Black advancement and urban decline
- this often fueled backlash against civil rights and affirmative action policies

hard hat riots

- involved construction workers violently attacking anti-war protestors in NYC
- these riots reflected growing tensions between blue collar workers and student activists over patriotism, war, and class

New York's "Welfare State"

- referred to its expansive public services system-free college tuition, public hospitals, generous pensions-that became politically controversial during the 1970s fiscal crisis
- critics, including President Ford, blamed these programs for the city's near bankruptcy

Municipal Assistance Corporation (Big Mac)

- created during NYC's 1970s fiscal crisis to impose financial discipline by requiring layoffs, tuition at CUNY, and fare hikes
- symbolized the shift from liberal welfare policies to austerity measures

Gerald R. Ford and Mayor Abe Beame

- in 1975, President Gerald Ford famously refused Mayor Abe Beame's request for a federal bailout, leading to the iconic headline "Ford to City: Drop Dead"
- Ford blamed New York's fiscal crisis on mismanagement and excessive public spending

"Fear City"

- Pamphlet distributed by NYPD unions warning tourists to avoid New York during the fiscal crisis, portraying the city as lawless and dangerous
- it reflected public safety fears and deepened anxieties about urban decline

blackout of 1977

- lasted 25 hours and triggered widespread looting and arson, especially in poor Black and Latino neighborhoods
- it exposed tensions around race, poverty, and policing in the late 1970s

Community Development Corporations (CDCs)

- grassroots organizations formed in response to urban disinvestment, empowering local residents to lead redevelopment efforts
- they emerged as alternatives to top-down urban renewal, especially in low-income neighborhoods

the Sunbelt

- refers to the southern and southwestern U.S., which experienced massive postwar population growth, industrial expansion, and conservative political shifts
- reshaped national power dynamics and electoral politics

Kevin Phillips

- Wrote in The Emerging Republican Majority, argued that the growing Sunbelt population and conservative values would shift U.S. policies toward the right
- his theory helped inspire the GOP's Southern Strategy

from Southern strategy to Silent Majority

- starting in the 1950s: economic power shifted to West & South
- warm climate in South attracted retirees and workers/migrants; aerospace/oil/high-tech industry companies were booming in South/Southwest in 1950s
- after cities (like SoCal) received federal funding, population there started to increase
- 1972: Southern and Western Sunbelt states had more electoral votes than the Northeast and Midwest — the first year suburban voters made up a plurality of the electorate

the military industrial complex

- refers to the close relationship between a nation's military, defense industry, and government, where the latter two have a connected interest in maintaining and increasing military spending
- President Dwight D. Eisenhower warned about this complex in his farewell address in 1961, highlighting the potential for this powerful alliance to influence policy and potentially endanger democracy
- favor interconnectedness, political influence, and financial incentive to continue this relationship

Lisa McGirr

- "Suburban Warriors"
- Southern California: received 2x as much federal investment than any other place
- focuses on the 1960s suburbia in Orange County, California
- Orange County's conservative elite: region developing (the way it does) affects politics and culture, as 7/10 OC residents owned their own homes
- 1950-1960: 85% of OC population increase was due to in-migration
- OC banned alcohol, banned public affection
- Robert Schular: drive-in church in OC
- describes how these suburban pioneers created new political and social philosophies anchored in a fusion of Christian fundamentalism, xenophobic nationalism, and western libertarianism

Darren Dochuck

- "From Bible Belt to Sunbelt"
- a novel written in 2010 documenting the five-decade history of the evangelical movement in Southern California explaining a realignment of American politics
- talks about "plain-folk" religious migrants (from Oklahoma, Texas, and Arkansas) who fled the Depression and came to California for military jobs during World War II

Lakewood, CA

- first city in the nation to contract for all of its municipal services when it was incorporated as a municipality in 1954 (the nation's first "contract city")
- a post World War II planned community designed with features like underground wires, street lighting, and car-friendly shopping center (first of its kind in the U.S.)

Robert Welch and the John Birch Society

- founder behind the John Birch Society, a highly controversial right-wing political advocacy group
- established in 1958 to promote anti-communist sentiment and vision of less government and individual responsibility
- faced criticism from both liberals and some conservatives for extreme views and conspiracy theories about Communist influence

Barry Goldwater

- American politician and major general in Air Force Reserve who served as United States senator from 1953-1965 and 1969-1987
- Republican Party's nominee for president in 1964
- rejected the legacy and fought against the New Deal, preaching modern conservatism

Phyllis Schlafly

- American attorney, conservative activist, and anti-feminist, nationally prominent in conservatism
- one of the first to tap into conservative religious sentiment based on "family values"
- argued that the Equal Rights Movement would take away gender-specific privileges enjoyed by women, including "dependent wife" benefits under Social Security, separate restrooms for males/females, and exemption from Selective Service (military draft)
- led successful campaign against ERA in 1970s

the Knapp Commission

- five-member panel formed in 1970 to investigate allegations of widespread corruption within NYPD
- named after chairman Whitman Knapp
- confirmed existence of widespread corruption (ex. Frank Serpico) and led to changes within NYPD, like dismissals and criminal prosecutions

the Rockefeller Drug Laws (1973)

- statutes dealing with sale and possession of "narcotic" drugs in the New York State Penal Law
- mandated severe penalties for drug offenses, like minimum sentences of 15-25 years-life for selling drugs
- named after Governor Nelson Rockefeller, who passes a bill that puts drug use/distribution in same felony category as first and second degree murder

crack

- cocaine was the highest "status", but because there was so much of it, the value decreased
- now that the value has decreased, users turned cocaine into crack to be able to sell more to MORE people ("the fast food of drugs")
- urban phenomenon, popular in North and Northeast
- effects of crack: hospital emergencies increased drastically (>100%), paranoia, hallucinations, violence

CBGB and punk...the Bronx & hip-hop

- Legendary NYC club, a hub for punk and new wave music in 1970s
- Bronx: considered the birthplace of hip-hop in the 1970s (continues to be vibrant hub for hip-hop culture with historical landmarks and ongoing celebratory events)

"And the Band Played On"

- 1993 film, the story of the discovery of the AIDS epidemic
- Gaeten Dugas = "Patient Zero": this theory becomes debunked in this film, as the origin is from Hepatitis A & B vaccines infected with AIDS
- slow, low prevalence until it spikes in 1969-1990s

St. Vincent's Hospital

- played pivotal role in AIDS epidemic, becoming a crucial center for care and research during the disease's early years
- Catholic hospital, so it provided medical care in line with church teaching
- located in Greenwich Village, the gay epicenter in NYC
- opened AIDS ward in 1984
- referred to as "ground zero" of AIDS epidemic in NYC and housing the first and largest AIDS ward on East Coast

Larry Kramer and ACT-UP

- American playwright, author, producer, and gay rights activist
- in 1987, was catalyst in founding of the AIDS Coalition to Unleash Power (ACT UP), a direct action protest (demonstrations, civil disobedience) organization that chose government agencies and corporations as targets to publicize lack of treatment/funding for people with AIDS

the war on drugs and the Crime Bill (1994)

- rise of crack/cocaine/opium entering U.S.
- the French Connection: how opium entered U.S. in 1950s-1960s; richard Nixon shuts this down successfully, but supply increases in 1970s, sourced from Latin America
- Crime Bill: Created and passed by President Clinton
- provided incentive grants to build and expand correctional facilities to qualifying states that enforced mandatory sentencing of 85% of person's sentence conviction
$12.5 billion in grants to fund incarceration

Bill Bratton and "Broken Windows Policing"

- a theory/policing strategy that focuses on addressing minor offenses like vandalism, public disorder, and loitering to prevent more serious crimes
- Bratton: Police Commissioner of NYC implemented "quality of life" initiative that focused on these types of offenses, believing that addressing them would create ordered environment and reduce crime

Rachel Carson

- "Silent Spring", 1962
- talks about this and how it kills, affects fish, water, eaten by birds, lay eggs, egg can't be opened, leads to bird deaths (bald eagle were near extinction)
- DDT gets outlawed two years after "Silent Spring"

Cuyahoga River (1969)

- Cleveland, Ohio: caught fire due to a combination of industrial pollution and debris accumulation
- this fire drew national attention, sparked a national discussion about water pollution and contributed to the creation of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Clean Water Act

Love Canal and Hooker Chemical (1977)

- this disaster gained national attention when toxic chemicals from a Hooker Chemical waste site began leaking into homes and the surrounding area in New York
- residents reported a range of health problems, prompting investigations and eventual evacuations. The incident highlighted the dangers of improper waste disposal and led to the creation of the Superfund program to address hazardous waste sites
- built schools on top of Love Canal, releasing a lot of chemicals (ex. benzine in the air)

Lois Gibbs

- American environmental activist and a primary organizer of the Love Canal Homeowners Association
- she brought wide public attention to the environmental crisis in the Love Canal, and her actions resulted in the evacuation of over 800 families

Warren County, NC

- located in northeastern Piedmont region of North Carolina on the border with Virginia
- made famous for a landfill and birthplace of environmental justice movement in the summer of 1982
- African American residents protested the state's decision to establish a toxic waste dump in the community, involving civil disobedience and arrests with protests lasting for six weeks and more than 500 arrests

Church Rock Mine Dam, New Mexico

- located within the Navajo Nation, built to contain waste from a uranium mill operated by the United Nuclear Corporation (UNC)
- on July 16, 1979: the dam breached, releasing a massive amount of radioactive waste and water into the Puerco River, and this spill is considered the largest single release of radioactive material in U.S. history

energy crises of the 1970s

- 1973 OAPEC Oil Embargo and 1979 Iranian Revolution
- a series of events that dramatically disrupted global oil supply and led to significant economic/social consequences

Three Mile Island (1979)

- partial nuclear meltdown at Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station in Pennsylvania
- led to a loss of coolant in the Unit 2 reactor
- accident sparked public fear and distrust of nuclear energy, leading to decline in nuclear power plant construction in U.S.

Superfund

- formally known as Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA), which cleans up hazardous waste sites and responds to environmental emergencies
- trust fund established by Congress to handle cleanups
- EPA administers program, working with state/local governments to remediate sites that threaten public health or environment

environmental racism

- disproportionate burden of environmental harms and lack of environmental benefits faced by communities of color, often due to discriminatory policies, practices, and decisions
- exposure to pollution, lack of access to clean air and water, placement of polluting facilities in minority neighborhoods

Oak Cliff, Dallas, TX

- known for its distinct identity, recognized for locally driven, artistic atmosphere, and strong Mexican community
- features variety of businesses, restaurants, and shops

1965 Immigration Reform

- numerical cap: 290,000/year, eliminate origin quota
- all countries: 20,000/year maximum (EQUAL)
- preference system (relatives & skills)
- refugee admission (6% of total)

Hmong and Somali refugees in Minnesota

- from Laos, alliance from Vietnam War
- given preferred immigration status from U.S.
- over 95,000 in Minnesota today (Hmong)
- both communities have significantly contributed to state's culture, economy, and social fabric

Richard Florida

- "The Creative Class"
- economic restructuring: tech, finance, etc. saved American cities after deindustrialization, and migrants now work in service industries (have bankers/RE moguls, then ethnics chase jobs serving them)

AK Sandoval Strauss

- "Barrio America"
- how Latino immigrants saved the American city
- in Chicago: growing retail area, decreased crime, 4th large immigrant party
- three foundations turning city into "barrio": 1) business, 2) transportation, 3) the home

Dylan Gottlieb

- "Hoboken is Burning"
- burning buildings so poor tenants move out and rents can be driven up, occupied by "yuppies": Young Urban Professionals
- discusses gentrification as Blacks/minorities get pushed out and whites swoop in as the only ones able to afford this new high quality of life

gentrification

- while cities continued to experience disinvestment & flight, select areas began to suffer effects of fevered overinvestment (Bronx vs. Hoboken)
- office occupancy rate maximized and skyrocketed, as expansion of urban office space boomed new retail spaces downtown
- not a restoration of retail department store, just mixed-use with shopping and experience based/cultural venues
- as cities were reemerging in the late 70s-80s, convention centers were being built

chocolate chip cities

- white suburban areas with small, scattered pockets of Black residents/other minorities
- early sites of racial integration and key battlegrounds in civil rights movement
- scattered nature of minority households limited political power in local governance

sprawl (5 homogeneous components)

1. highways
2. land use policies
3. pooling resources
4. access to opportunities
5. governance

traditional neighborhood (6 characteristics of urban space)

1. town center (things radiate out of there, focus of commerce)
2. 5-minute walk
Street network (could be a grid)
3. narrow/versatile streets
4. mixed-use (office, retail, residential, entertainment in one building)
5. special sites (ex. City Hall, NYC)

Andres Duany and New Urbanism

- "The Victims of Sprawl"
- key figure in New Urbanism movement, countering the negative effects of urban sprawl
- emphasizing creation of walkable, mixed-use communities with focus on traditional town planning principles
- highlights negative consequences of sprawl, like traffic congestion, loss of open space, and decline in civic life
- argue that sprawling development negatively impacts environment, economy, and social fabric of communities

Robert Bruegmann

- "Sprawl: A Compact History"
- published in 2005, some critics say sprawl has been economically inefficient, socially inequitable, environmentally irresponsible, and aesthetically ugly
- Bruegmann calls it a logical consequence of economic growth and democratization of society
- Bruegmann says in immense complexity and constant change, even if the city is dense/looser suburbia, it is the most marvelous work of mankind

accessory dwelling units

- AKA granny flat, in-law suite, or accessory apartment
- smaller, independent residential unit located on the same lot as a main single-family home
- provides separate living space and can be attached/detached/within main residence