AP Psych: Learning

Associative learning

Learning that certain events occur together

Classical conditioning

Learning where one associates stimuli and anticipates events

Ex. a cat learning to associate the sound of an electric can opener with being fed

Unconditioned Response

An unlearned, automatic response to an unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned Stimulus

An originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response.

Conditioned Response

The learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus.

Ivan Pavlov

Russian psychologist who discovered classical conditioning through his work with dogs

Stages of Conditioning

Acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination

Acquisition

The initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response.

Higher-Order conditioning

A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus

Extinction

The diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs when the unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus

Spontaneous recovery

The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

Generalization

The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.

Discrimination

The learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

Learned helplessness

The hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events.

Operant Conditioning

Learning through consequences, where behavior is modified by reinforcement or punishment

Operant Behavior

Behavior controlled by its consequences, either increasing or decreasing its likelihood

Law of Effect

Behaviors followed by satisfying consequences become more likely; those followed by unpleasant consequences become less likely

Shaping behavior

Gradually modifying behavior reinforcing successive approximations towards a desired behavior

Positive reinforcement

Adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior.

Ex. a student receiving praise or a sticker for completing a difficult assignment

Negative reinforcement

removing a disliked stimulus to increase a behavior

Ex. beeping noise your car makes until you buckle your seatbelt.

Positive punishment

Adding a disliked stimulus to decrease a behavior

Ex. a teacher giving extra homework to a student who is disruptive

Negative punishment

Removing a desirable stimulus to decrease a behavior.

Ex. A parent taking away a child's video game console for not doing homework

Punishment

A consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior

Extrinsic motivation

Motivation driven by external rewards or punishments.

Ex. completing a job to earn a paycheck or a student studying hard to get good grades

Intrinsic motivation

Motivation driven by internal satisfaction or enjoyment.

Ex. participating in a sport because you enjoy the activity itself, not for awards or recognition

Modeling

Learning by imitating others’ behaviors

Mirror neurons

Neurons that fire both when performing an action and when observing the same action performed by another.

Prosocial Behavior

Positive, helpful behavior learned through observation

Ex. Miss Frizzle, Rosa Parks, Fred Rogers

Antisocial Behavior

Negative, harmful behavior learned through observation

Ex. Ted Bundy, Patrick Bateman, Jeffery Dahmer

Encoding

The process of transforming information into a form that can be stored in memory.

Storage

The retention of encoded information over time

Retrieval

The process of accessing and bringing stored information into consciousness

Recall

Retrieving information without cues

Recognition

Identifying previously learned information from a set of options

Relearning

Learning something more quickly the second time

Mnemonic Devices

Techniques used to improve memory, such as acronyms or visual imagery

Priming

Exposure to one stimulus influences the response to a subsequent stimulus

Deja Vu

Feeling of having already experienced a current situation

Mood Congruent Memory

Enhanced recall of information that aligns with current mood

Forgetting

The inability to retrieve information

Storage Failure

Memory loss due to decay or disuse of stored information

Encoding Failure

Failure to create a memory trace initially

Retrieval Failure

Inability to access stored information

Proactive Interference

Old information hinders recall of new information.

Retroactive Interference

New information hinders recall of old information

Repression

Unconsciously blocking unacceptable thoughts and feelings from awareness

Sensory Memory

Immediate, very brief recording of sensory information

Short-Term Memory

Activated memory that holds a few items briefly

Long-Term Memory

Relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of memory

Working Memory

Active maintenance of information in short-term storage

Parallel Processing

Processing multiple aspects of a stimulus simultaneously

Effortful Processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

Rehearsal

Conscious repetition of information to maintain it in memory

Spacing Effect

Distributed study yields better long-term retention than massed study.

Serial Position Effect

Tendency to recall best the first and last items in a list

Mnemonic

Memory aids, especially techniques using vivid imagery and organizational devices

Chunking

Organizing information into manageable units

Iconic Memory

Visual sensory memory; very brief image retention

Echoic Memory

Auditory sensory memory; brief sound retention

Working/Short Term Memory

Limited capacity; holds information temporarily

Involved in active processing

Long Term Memory

Unlimited capacity; stores information for long periods

Includes explicit and implicit memory

Long Term Potential (LTP)

Strengthening of synaptic connections

Basis for learning and memory consolidation

Flashbulb Memory

Vivid, detailed memories of significant events

Can be subject to distortion over time

Stress Hormones

Can enhance or impair memory consolidation

Impact of cortisol on memory

Amnesia

Memory loss due to brain injury or trauma

Implicit Memory

Unconscious memory; skills and habits.

Procedural memory

Explicit Memory

Conscious memory; facts and events

Declarative memory

Misinformation Effect

Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

Source Amnesia

Attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined.

Improving memory

Techniques and strategies used to enhance the encoding, storage, and retrieval information

Uses: mnemonics, chunking, rehearsal, elaboration, and retrieval cues

Cognition

All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Algorithms

Methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem

Heuristics

A simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently

Insight

A sudden realization of a problem's solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions

Creativity

The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

Confirmation bias

Definition: Tendency to favor information confirming existing beliefs.

Impact: Can lead to ignoring contradictory evidence.

Example: Only reading news sources that align with your political views.

Fixation

Definition: Inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective.

Related Term: Can be an impediment to problem-solving.

Overcoming: Requires conscious effort to consider alternative approaches.

Mental set

Definition: Approaching problems with previously successful mindset.

Challenge: May prevent discovering more efficient solutions.

Example: Always using the same route to work, even if there's a faster way.

Functional fixedness

Definition: Limiting view of an object to its traditional use.

Impact: Hinders creative problem-solving.

Example: Not realizing a coin can be used as a screwdriver.

Representative heuristics

Definition: Judging probability based on how well something represents a category.

Risk: Can lead to ignoring base rates.

Example: Assuming someone is a librarian because they are quiet and enjoy reading.

Availability heuristics

Definition: Estimating likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind.

Influence: Vivid or recent events disproportionately affect judgment.

Example: Fearing plane crashes more than car accidents due to media coverage.

Overconfidence

Definition: Tendency to be more confident than correct.

Manifestation: Overestimating one's abilities or knowledge.

Impact: Can lead to poor decision-making.

Belief perseverance

Definition: Clinging to beliefs even after being discredited.

Resistance: Difficulty accepting contradictory evidence.

Example: Continuing to believe a rumor despite it being proven false.

Intuition

Definition: Knowing or understanding something without conscious reasoning.

Source: Often based on past experiences and pattern recognition.

Usefulness: Can be quick and efficient, but also prone to biases.

Phonemes

Basic units of sound in a language.

Morphemes

Smallest units of meaning in a language.

Grammar

System of rules governing the structure and use of a language

Semantics

Rules for deriving meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences

Syntax

The arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language

Receptive language

The ability to understand what is said to and about you

Productive language

Ability to produce words

Babbling

Beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds

One-word stage

The stage in speech development, from about age 1-2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words

Two-word stage

Beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements

Telegraphic Speech

Early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram using mostly nouns and verbs

Skinner vs. Chomsky

Debate over language acquisition

Skinner: Language is learned through reinforcement

Chomsky: Humans have a built-in predisposition to learn grammar rules (universal grammar).

Linguistic Determinism

the theory that the structure of a language determines the way its speakers perceive and conceptualize the world. This idea, also known as the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, suggests that language shapes thought to such a degree that it limits or even dictates cognitive abilities