Emotions Basics & Basic Emotions

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter secreted from the locus coeruleus, involved in the fight/flight response, arousal, stress, and fear.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter associated with mood and impulsivity.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter synthesized in the ventral tegmental area, involved in motivated behavior, motion, and reward behavior.

Synaptic transmission

Involves glutamate (excitatory) and GABA (inhibitory) in the transmission of signals between neurons.

Neuromodulators

Neurotransmitters like norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine that modify the response of postsynaptic neurons rather than transmitting signals directly. Make the postsynaptic neuron more/less susceptible to APs

Hypothalamus

A brain region that sends signals to the pituitary gland and regulates various autonomic functions.

Opioids (endorphins)

Neuropeptides that are associated with pleasure and motivation.

Oxytocin

A hormone involved in social bonding.

Testosterone

A steroid hormone linked to aggression and reproductive functions.

Cortisol

A steroid hormone released in response to stress.

Parasympathetic nervous system

The branch of the autonomic nervous system responsible for the 'rest and digest' response, returns body to a relaxed state

Sympathetic nervous system

The branch of the autonomic nervous system responsible for the 'fight or flight' response.

Reptillian complex

The oldest part of the brain, contains the approach/avoidance system and the autonomous nervous system. Reactivity-based behaviour

Paleomammalian complex

Part of the limbic system, evolved to control the autonomic nervous system. Contains the hypothalamus, striatum, amygdala, insula, hippocampus

Behaviour is influenced by attention, conditioning, and motivation

Neomammalian cortex

The neocortex that combines rational information with emotional information. The vmPFC balances these streams of information

James-Lange theory

Theory proposing that bodily arousal leads to the emotional experience. Criticised because the same bodily arousal can cause different emotional experiences. Holds in situations like PTSD patients.

Cannon-Bard theory

Theory stating that emotion and bodily arousal occur simultaneously but independently.

Schachter & Singer theory

Theory suggesting that arousal and emotional experience are separate but interact for the overall emotional experience.

Adrenaline injection experiment

The adrenaline caused arousal in everybody, but those in a happy situation interpreted it as pleasant arousal, those in an angry situation interpreted it as an angry experience

Universality of empotions

Fear, happiness and disgust are the 3 basic emotions and are linked to different brain areas. Fear and happiness signal to others, disgust has a protective function

Fear

An emotion linked to threat avoidance, processed mainly by the amygdala.

Disgust

An emotion associated with avoidance of illness and contamination, processed by the insular cortex. The facial expression made during fear decreases nostril volume, potentially decreasing intake of toxic substances

Happiness

An emotion linked to reward approach, processed in the striatum.

Anger

An emotion related to social hierarchies, lacking a specific neural substrate. Influenced by culture and a product of approach/avoidance motivation

Sadness

An emotion linked to care for offspring and family, lacking a specific neural substrate.

Amygdala

A brain structure involved in processing fear and threat evaluation.

Basolateral amygdala

Fear regulation and threat conditioning., regulates central medial amygdala

Central amygdala

Fear expression center. Output of the amygdala, generates bodily responses in response to fear input

High route of visual threat processing

Visual image → visual thalamus → visual cortex (image is seen consciously) → amygdala and neocortex (threat is assessed)

Low route of threat processing

Shortcut from visual thalamus to the amugdala. Preconsciously (before the visual image is processed) there can be a threat response generated by the amygdala to allow immediate response

Urbach-Wiethe disease

A condition causing calcification of the amygdala, leading to difficulties in recognizing fear. Patient SM could recognise fear when she was told to look at the eyes, but did not do this analysis spontaneously

Salience network

A network in the brain that detects and filters salient stimuli, influenced by the insula.

Insula

Involved in disgust, taste, pain perception, interoceptive awareness, main node of the salience network

Dorsal striatum

A region responsible for the expression of motivated behavior and habit formation.

Ventral striatum

A region that corresponds with the experience of reward and anticipates rewards.

Orbitalfrontal cortex

A brain area involved in computing and predicting the rewards of stimuli, modulates the difference between liking and wanting. Provides behavioural flexibility so that behaviour can be adjusted to the current situation

Anterior cingulate cortex

A brain area that monitors conflicts and adjusts behavior based on perceived rewards.

• Dorsal part: cognitive conflicts eg in the classic stroop task

• Ventral part: affective conflict eg in the facial expression stroop task

Somatic marker theory

The theory that emotions from past experiences and the interpretation of the current situation aid decision-making processes.

Iowa gambling task

An experiment that demonstrates decision-making based on emotional and rational cues.

Utilitarian perspective

A viewpoint often adopted by individuals with vmPFC damage, focusing on the greatest good when making moral decisions

vmPFC

The ventromedial prefrontal cortex that integrates emotional and rational information for decision-making.

Interoceptive awareness

The perception of internal body states, influenced by the insula.

Fear conditioning

The process of learning to associate a neutral stimulus with an aversive event, often linked to the amygdala.

Emotional mood

A long-term, diffuse affective state that is less intense than an emotional reaction.