macroscopic anatomy
gross anatomy, study of large body structures, visible to naked eye
divided into regional and systemic anatomy
microscopic anatomy
the small structures that are not seen
developmental anatomy
structural changes throughout lifetime
body organization
chemical level - atoms form molecules, molecules form organelles (basic components of cells)
cellular level - vary in size, shape, and function
tissue level - groups of similar cells with common function (epithelial, muscle, connective, nervous)
organ level - complex functions become possible
organ system level - organs working together
organism level - sum total of all structural levels working together
organ systems
cardiovascular, digestive, respiratory, urinary, integumentary, skeletal, muscular system, nervous, endocrine, lymphatic, reproductive
1.3 IN TEXTBOOK
digestive system
takes in nutrients, breaks down, eliminates unabsorbed matter
mouth, pharynx (throat), esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus
respiratory system
takes in oxygen, eliminates or gets rid of CO2 from the body (lungs and air sacs)
lungs. Other respiratory organs include the nose, the trachea and the breathing muscles (the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles)
cardiovascular system
distributes oxygen and nutrients via blood to all the body cells, and delivers waste and CO2 to disposal organs
heart, veins, arteries, and capillaries
urinary system
eliminates Nitrogen waste and excess ions
kidneys, renal pelvis, ureters, bladder and urethra
integumentary system
protects body from the external everything, I made up by your hair, skin, and nails
(or plasma membrane - single-cell, creates cell barrier from the outside world): every organism must maintain boundaries so that the internal does not go external
skeletal system
protects and support the organs, framework for the muscles, blood cells are formed through hematopoiesis, stores minerals, made up of bones and joints
bones, cartilage, ligaments, and tendons
GO MORE IN DEPTH
muscular system
manipulation of the environment, facial expression, posture, heat, etc.
composed of muscle fibers,
Muscles, attached to bones or internal organs and blood vessels, are responsible for movement. Nearly all movement in the body is the result of muscle contraction
Each organ or muscle consists of skeletal muscle tissue, connective tissue, nerve tissue, and blood or vascular tissue
nervous system
control system of the body
The nervous system has two main parts: The central nervous system is made up of the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system is made up of nerves that branch off from the spinal cord and extend to all parts of the body
brain and spinal cord
endocrine system
hormones
the glands and organs that make hormones and release them directly into the blood so they can travel to tissues and organs all over the body
the hormones released by the endocrine system control many important functions in the body, including growth and development, metabolism, and reproductionhypothalamus.
pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals, pineal body, the ovaries, the testes.
lymphatic system
white blood cells and immunity to viruses or diseases, attacking foreign substances in the body
bone marrow, spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, and lymphatic vessel
reproductive system
he tissues, glands, and organs involved in producing offspring (children)
in women, the reproductive system includes the ovaries, the fallopian tubes, the uterus, the cervix, and the vagina
in men, it includes the prostate, the testes, and the penis
In women, the reproductive system includes the ovaries, the fallopian tubes, the uterus, the cervix, and the vagina. In men, it includes the prostate, the testes, and the penis
what systems allow movement
muscular, skeletal, cardiovascular
what systems allow responsiveness
nervous system, endocrine system
what systems allow digestion
digestive, urinary, nervous, cardiovascular, muscular
what systems allow metabolism
digestive, respiratory, cardiovascular, endocrine
what systems allow excretion
digestion, urinary
requirements for life
oxygen, nutrients, narrow range of temperature, narrow range of atmospheric pressure, and water
homeostasis
bodies ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even though the outside world changes continuously
dynamic state of equilibrium, varies within a very small range
homeostatic control
communication is essential with nervous and endocrine system, neural electrical impulses/hormone communicators
stimulus → receptor → input (info to control center) → output (information is sent to the effector) → response (the effector responds and returns to homeostatic levels)
negative feedback loops
output shuts off original effect of stimulus or reduces its intensity
examples - regulation of body temperature, the withdrawal reflex, endocrine system very important with the control of blood sugar and insulin levels
positive feedback loops
causing variable to deviate further from the original value, same direction as initial change, typically set off through a linked sequence of events (“cascades” amplify original stimulus)
oxytocin with labor contractions, blood clotting, fever
LOOK AT THOSE PRESENTATIONS FOR MORE EXAMPLES OF POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE FEEDBACK LOOPS
anatomical position
standard body position - body is erect with feet slightly apart, palms face forward, thumbs point away
superior
above or farther towards the top
inferior
below, farther towards bottom
anterior
in fornt of
posterior
behind
medial
towards midline
lateral
away from midline, outside
intermediate
between a more medial and more lateral structure
proximal
closer to the origin of the body, closer to the attachment of the limb than the part it is being compared to
distal
farther from the attachment of the limb
superficial
closer to the body’s surface
deep
farther away from body’s surface
sagittal plane
vertical plane that divides body into right and left
midsagittal - lies exactly in median
parasagittal - offset from midline
frontal plane (coronal plane)
divided body into anterior and posterior
transverse or horizontal plane
divides body into superior and inferior parts, lies horizontal anywhere along the body from head to foot
oblique sections
cuts made diagonally between horizontal and vertical planes, seldom used
anabolism
Anabolism requires energy to grow and build
Anabolism is a biochemical process in metabolism where the simple molecules combine to generate complex molecules. This process is endergonic, which means it is not spontaneous and requires energy to progress the anabolic reaction
catabolism
Catabolism uses energy to break down
Catabolism is what happens when you digest food and the molecules break down in the body for use as energy. Large, complex molecules in the body are broken down into smaller, simple ones. An example of catabolism is glycolysis. This process is almost the reverse of gluconeogenesis
metabolism
Metabolism is a balancing act involving two kinds of activities that go on at the same time:
building up body tissues and energy stores (called anabolism)
breaking down body tissues and energy stores to get more fuel for body functions (called catabolism)
FIGURE 1.4 IN TEXTBOOK
blood pressure
involves negative feedback loop, heart rate falls when blood pressure rises, and vice-versa when blood pressure falls, thus modulating blood pressure fluctuations
childbirth
The release of oxytocin from the posterior pituitary gland during labor is an example of positive feedback mechanism. Oxytocin stimulates the muscle contractions that push the baby through the birth canal. The release of oxytocin result in stronger or augmented contractions during labor
fever
Deviation of hypothalamic temperature away from this point activates appropriate responses in the opposite direction to return the body temperature to the normal level
osmoregulation
Osmoregulation is an example of a negative feedback, homeostatic control system
maintaining the balance between water and dissolved constituents (salts in solution) in the body
temperature regulation
negative feedback goes on throughout the body at all times
the human body regulates body temperature through a process called thermoregulation, in which the body can maintain its temperature within certain boundaries, even when the surrounding temperature is very different
What are the definitive features of human life?
organization - organization of levels (before term)
metabolism - cellular reactions
responsiveness - utilization of nervous system external or internal, respond to environment (physical - sweating an shiver) (internal - fever and heart beat)
movement - internal and external
development - change over time, body proportions, bone quality
reproduction - reproductive system and cellular reproduction