AP PSYCH STUDY GUIDE U1

Heredity

The passing on of physical or mental characteristics genetically from one generation to another.

Nature

The influence of heredity on behavior and traits.

• Socrates & Plato

Nurture

The impact of environmental factors/surroundings on behavior and traits.

Genetic predisposition

An increased likelihood of developing a particular trait or condition based on genetic makeup.

• e.g., a family member has cancer, and other members of the family have an increased likelihood of developing the disease

Evolutionary perspective

A viewpoint that emphasizes the role of evolution in shaping behavior and traits.

• rejecting introspection and focusing solely on observable behavior. This perspective emphasized the role of environmental stimuli and reinforcement in shaping behavior

• Charles Darwin

Natural selection

The process by which organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring.

• central idea is that many psychological traits, such as fears, preferences, and social behaviors, evolved because they provided survival or reproductive advantages to our ancestors.

• Charles Darwin

eugenics

the study of improvement of human functioning and well-being by improvement of living conditions.

• causes undesirable traits to vanquish

• assumes that certain traits are inherently superior or inferior

twin studies

• monozygotic twins: a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating 2 genetically identical organisms

  • if raised apart, similar traits are noticed. that’s an example of nurture.

  • if raised together, different traits are developed b/w the pair. example of nurture.

• fraternal dizygotic twins: separate fertilized eggs that share some traits.

• these studies have been used to explore the heritability of conditions like schizophrenia, intelligence, and personality traits

family studies

• extent to which a trait or disorder runs in families, suggesting a hereditary component.

• studies are often used to explore the inheritance patterns of mental disorders like depression, anxiety, and bipolar disorder, helping to determine how much of these conditions is due to genetics versus environmental factors

• The role of environment (e.g., parenting style, socioeconomic status) in shaping behaviors and traits

adoption studies

• These studies compare adopted children to both their biological (genetic) and adoptive (environmental) families to understand the relative contributions of heredity and upbringing.

• these studies have been used to study the heritability of intelligence, personality traits, and the risk of developing mental health disorders like schizophrenia, showing how both genetic and environmental factors play roles in these areas.

Central nervous system

• The part of the nervous system that includes the brain and spinal cord.

• receive, process, and respond to sensory information from the body

Peripheral nervous system

• The network of nerves that branch out from the spinal cord and brain to the rest of the body

• communication happens from the CNS

Autonomic nervous system

• The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary bodily functions.

• heart rate, blood pressure

• sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems

Sympathetic nervous system

• The division of the autonomic nervous system responsible for the "fight or flight" response.

• prepare the body for physical activity by redirecting oxygen-rich blood to the areas of the body that need it most

• slows digestion, dilates pupils, directs blood flow to muscles, speeds up heart rate

Parasympathetic nervous system

• The division of the autonomic nervous system responsible for rest and digestion.

• broad system affecting multiple organs and functions throughout the body, primarily associated with calming effects

• inhibitory neurons

somatic nervous system

part of peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary movement and allows us to perform daily functions by connecting the central nervous system, with + and - algorithm

Neurons

Nerve cells that transmit information throughout the body.

Glial cells

Support cells in the nervous system that play a role in neuron function; maintaining homeostasis, regulate environment around the neurons, or axons, removing waste, etc.

Reflex arc

the nerve pathway involved in a reflex action, which is an automatic and quick response to a stimulus

• Stimulus: Something happens, like touching something hot.

• Sensory Neuron: A sensory neuron detects the stimulus and sends a signal to the spinal cord.

• Interneuron: An interneuron, in the spinal cord, processes the information and quickly sends a signal to a motor neuron.

• Motor Neuron: The motor neuron sends a signal to your muscles to move, like pulling your hand away from the hot object.

• Quick Response: The signal doesn’t need to go to the brain first, so the reaction is super fast.

Sensory neurons

nerve cells that carry signals from sensory receptors (like those in the skin, eyes, ears, nose, and tongue) to the brain and spinal cord (CNS)

Motor neurons

• nerve cells that carry signals from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands, causing them to contract or secrete (movement)

• control voluntary movements (like walking) and involuntary actions (like reflexes).

• upper is located in the brain to send signals to spinal cord

• lower is located in spinal cord to execute the movement

Interneurons

• nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord that connect sensory neurons to motor neurons.

• They help relay messages between sensory neurons (which detect things) and motor neurons (which make muscles move).

• When you touch something hot, interneurons help send the signal from your skin (sensory neurons) to your muscles (motor neurons) to quickly pull your hand away.

Neural transmission

• the process by which nerve cells (neurons) send messages to each other or to muscles and glands.

1. A neuron sends an electrical signal called an action potential down its axon.

2. When the signal reaches the end of the neuron, it triggers the release of chemicals called neurotransmitters.

3. These neurotransmitters cross a small gap (synapse) to the next neuron, passing the message along.

• When you decide to pick up a cup, your brain sends a neural transmission to the muscles in your hand to move and grab the cup.

Action potential

an electrical signal that travels down a neuron’s axon to communicate information.

• When a neuron gets a strong enough signal, or when it reaches its threshold, it triggers a(n) ___.

• The ___ travels down the axon like a wave.

• When it reaches the end of the axon, it causes the release of neurotransmitters to pass the message to the next cell.

• Initiated when a neuron reaches its threshold.

• Sodium ions rush into the neuron, followed by potassium ions flowing out, restoring the resting potential.

Example: they are what allow you to quickly pull your hand away when you touch something hot.

All-or-nothing principle

refers to how a neuron either fully fires an action potential or doesn’t fire at all—there’s no partial firing.

• Threshold: A neuron must receive a strong enough signal (reach a certain threshold) to trigger an action potential.

• Full Response: If the threshold is reached, the neuron will fire a full action potential.

• No Response: If the threshold isn’t reached, the neuron won’t fire at all.

Ex, a light switch; either it’s on or off.

Depolarization

the process during which a neuron’s electrical charge becomes less negative, making it more likely to fire an action potential.

• Starting Point: A neuron usually has a negative charge inside.

• Positive Ions Enter: When the neuron gets a signal, positive ions (like sodium) flow into the cell through the nodes of Ranvier (small gaps in the myelin sheath, or the membrane surrounding the axon).

• Charge Change: This makes the inside of the neuron less negative (more positive)

• Triggering Action Potential: If the change is strong enough, it triggers an action potential.

Refractory period

the short time after a neuron fires an action potential during which it cannot fire another one

Purpose: prevents the overlapping of signals, maintaining clear and organized communication within the nervous system.

Resting potential

• The stable negative charge of a neuron when it is not firing.

• like a charged battery waiting to be used. The neuron is ready to fire, but it needs the right signal (a depolarization) to activate and send an electrical impulse.

Reuptake

The reabsorption of neurotransmitters by the sending neuron after they have been released.

• neurotransmitter like serotonin has sent its signal to a neighboring neuron, it’s taken back into the original neuron so it can be reused or broken down, maintaining balance in the communication process.

Threshold

minimum level of stimulation required to trigger an action potential in a neuron.

• If the depolarization reaches a critical level, the neuron reaches its ___. This triggers an action potential — a rapid, large-scale depolarization that sends a signal down the axon.

• If the ___ is not reached, the neuron will not fire an action potential. If the threshold is reached, the neuron will fire fully.

multiple sclerosis

a chronic autoimmune disease that affects the central nervous system (CNS), particularly the brain and spinal cord. It leads to the degradation of the myelin sheath, the protective covering around nerve fibers.

• the immune system mistakenly attacks and damages the myelin sheath.

myasthenia gravis

• a chronic autoimmune neuromuscular disease that causes weakness in the voluntary muscles, which are the muscles that control movement.

• the immune system produces antibodies that attack the communication between nerves and muscles at the neuromuscular junction (the point where nerve cells connect with the muscles they control).

• These antibodies block or destroy acetylcholine receptors on the muscle cells. Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter that is essential for muscle contraction.

excitatory neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that promote the firing of neurons by making them more likely to reach the threshold needed to trigger an action potential. These neurotransmitters are crucial for activating neural circuits involved in everything from movement to thought processes.

• Glutamate

• Acetylcholine

• Dopamine

inhibitory transmitters

chemical messengers that reduce the likelihood of a neuron firing an action potential by making the neuron more negative and less likely to reach the threshold. These neurotransmitters play a crucial role in calming the nervous system, regulating mood, and preventing excessive neural activity.

• GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid)

• Glycine

• Serotonin

Dopamine

neurotransmitter involved in many essential brain functions, including reward, motivation, movement, and learning.

• excess can lead to schizophrenia

Serotonin

neurotransmitter involved in regulating mood, sleep, appetite, and digestion. Its balance is essential for mental and physical health, with imbalances being linked to conditions such as depression, anxiety, and digestive issues.

Norepinephrine

both a neurotransmitter and a hormone that plays a key role in the body’s "fight or flight" response, as well as in regulating attention, arousal, and mood.

• released in response to stress, preparing the body for action by increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and blood flow to muscles.

• helps maintain attention and focus by enhancing alertness

• Low levels = depression and ADHD. Some antidepressants and Aderall work by increasing its levels.

• high levels = anxiety

Glutamate

• brain's primary excitatory neurotransmitter

• vital for learning, memory, and overall brain function. It enables neurons to communicate and adapt, which is crucial for cognitive processes.

GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid)

• brain's main inhibitory neurotransmitter, crucial for reducing neural activity, preventing overstimulation, and promoting calmness, relaxation, and sleep. Imbalances in its levels are linked to various disorders, including anxiety, epilepsy, and insomnia

• many medications for these conditions aim to enhance its effects.

Endorphins

• function as the body's natural painkillers and mood boosters.

• released in response to pain, stress, and physical activity, binding to opioid receptors to reduce pain perception and promote feelings of euphoria and well-being

• painkillers mimics this neurotransmitter

Acetylcholine

• a vital neurotransmitter involved in muscle movement, memory, and the functioning of the autonomic nervous system. It enables muscle contraction, plays a key role in cognitive functions, and regulates bodily functions controlled by the parasympathetic nervous system

• lack of ACh can lead to Alzheimer’s

Hormones

• essential chemical messengers that regulate a wide range of bodily functions, from growth and metabolism to mood and reproduction

• Produced by glands in the endocrine system, they travel through the bloodstream to target organs, where they influence specific physiological processes

Adrenaline or Epinephrine

• A hormone that prepares the body for "fight or flight" responses.

• vital hormone and neurotransmitter involved in the body’s acute stress response, enhancing physical readiness by increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and energy availability

• plays a key role in emergency situations

• elevation of adrenaline leads to high BP, anxiety, insomnia, etc

substance P

• neuropeptide involved in pain transmission (process by which pain signals are detected), inflammation (body's natural response to injury), and mood regulation

• plays a key role in transmitting pain signals from sensory nerves to the brain and spinal cord, contributing to the sensation of pain

• can cause blood vessels to widen (vasodilation), which increases blood flow to certain areas

Leptin

• a hormone produced by fat cells that helps regulate appetite, metabolism, and body weight. By signaling to the brain about the body’s energy stores, it plays a crucial role in maintaining energy balance

• resistance = obesity

Ghrelin

• A hormone that stimulates appetite.

• a hormone that stimulates appetite and regulates energy balance by signaling hunger to the brain. It is produced mainly in the stomach and influences growth hormone

• imbalance = obesity or anorexia

Melatonin

• A hormone that regulates sleep-wake cycles.

• a hormone produced by the pineal gland that regulates sleep-wake cycles and circadian rhythms. Its production increases in response to darkness, promoting sleep and helping to synchronize the body's internal clock

• Disruptions in its production or signaling can lead to sleep disorders, jet lag, and shift work disorder

Oxytocin

• a hormone involved in childbirth, lactation, and social bonding.

• It stimulates uterine contractions during labor and milk ejection during breastfeeding

• influences social interactions, trust, and emotional well-being

• Disruptions in levels can impact conditions like postpartum depression and autism

Psychoactive drugs

• substances that alter brain function and influence mood, perception, and behavior.

• include depressants, stimulants, hallucinogens, opioids, and cannabinoids, each with specific effects and uses.

• pose risks, including addiction and health problems.

Agonists

• substances that activate specific receptors in the body, mimicking the effects of natural neurotransmitters or hormones.

• can be classified into full agonists, partial agonists, and inverse agonists, each with different effects and uses.

• have therapeutic applications in managing pain, mental health disorders, and hormonal imbalances

• carry risks such as addiction, dependence, and side effects related to receptor overstimulation.

Antagonists

• substances that bind to receptors but do not activate them, effectively blocking or inhibiting the effects of agonists or natural substances.

• can be competitive, non-competitive, or allosteric, depending on how they interact with the receptor.

• used therapeutically to treat conditions such as overdose, high blood pressure, and allergies

• side effects

• don’t necessarily slow it functions but more generally block neurotransmitters

Reuptake inhibitors

• drugs that block the reabsorption of neurotransmitters, increasing their levels and enhancing their effects

• used primarily to treat mood disorders, anxiety, and chronic pain

Stimulants

• drugs that increase CNS activity, improving alertness, energy, and mood.

• include substances like caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, cocaine, and methylphenidate

• effective for certain medical conditions like ADHD and narcolepsy

• carry risks of addiction, cardiovascular issues, and mental health effects.

caffeine

• natural stimulant that increases alertness and cognitive function by blocking adenosine receptors in the brain.

• commonly found in coffee, tea, chocolate, and energy drinks.

• beneficial effects, such as improved mood and concentration

• excessive consumption can lead to insomnia, anxiety, dependence, and other side effects

cocaine

• potent stimulant derived from coca leaves, known for its powerful effects on mood, energy, and alertness.

• works by inhibiting the reuptake of neurotransmitters like dopamine.

• carries significant risks including addiction, cardiovascular problems, mental health issues, and overdose.

• illegal in most places due to its high potential for abuse and harm.

Depressants

• drugs that slow down CNS activity, leading to relaxation, reduced anxiety, and impaired cognitive and motor function.

• include substances like alcohol, benzodiazepines, barbiturates, and non-benzodiazepine sleep aids.

• effective for managing conditions such as anxiety and sleep disorders

• carry risks of dependence, impaired coordination, and overdose.

• inhibitory neurotransmitters

alcohol

• a central nervous system depressant found in beverages like beer, wine, and spirits.

• effects such as relaxation, euphoria, and impaired cognitive and motor functions.

• used medically as an antiseptic and for sedation

• excessive and regular consumption poses significant risks, including addiction, health problems, and mental health issues.

• is legally regulated but should be consumed in moderation to avoid adverse effects.

Hallucinogens

• drugs that alter sensory perception, mood, and cognition, leading to hallucinations and distorted experiences.

• some have potential therapeutic uses, such as in psychedelic therapy and anesthesia

• carry risks of psychological distress, impaired judgment, and long-term mental health effects.

• legal status varies, with many being controlled substances due to their potential for abuse and harm.

marijuana

• derived from the Cannabis plant

• contains psychoactive compounds like THC and CBD

• It produces effects such as euphoria, relaxation, and altered perception, and is used both recreationally and medicinally

• Medical uses include pain relief, nausea reduction, and appetite stimulation

• poses risks including cognitive impairment, mental health issues, and respiratory problems.

• legal status varies, and responsible use is recommended

Opioids

• powerful drugs used for pain relief, including natural, semi-synthetic, and synthetic forms.

• provide analgesia and can induce euphoria.

• effective for managing severe pain

• carry significant risks, including addiction, respiratory depression, and overdose.

• tightly regulated as controlled substances

Heroin

• a powerful and illegal opioid derived from morphine, known for its intense euphoric and sedative effects.

• high potential for addiction and carries significant risks, including overdose, health complications, and severe withdrawal symptoms.

Tolerance

• the body's reduced response to a drug or substance with repeated use, leading to the need for higher doses to achieve the same effect.

• can involve changes at the cellular or metabolic level and may increase the risk of dependence and addiction.

Addiction

A compulsive need for a substance despite negative consequences.

Withdrawal

• the set of physical and psychological symptoms that occur when a person who is dependent on a substance stops or reduces its use.

• Symptoms can include tremors, nausea, anxiety, and insomnia.

Brain stem

a part of the brain that connects the brain to the spinal cord. It controls basic life functions like breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.

Cerebellum

a part of the brain located at the back of the head. It is responsible for coordinating movement, balance, and posture.

Cerebral cortex

the outermost layer of the brain, responsible for higher-order functions such as thought, perception, and voluntary movement.

Limbic system

a group of structures deep within the brain that plays a crucial role in emotion, memory, and motivation.

Thalamus

• acts as a relay station, receiving sensory information (except for smell) from the body and sending it to the appropriate area of the cerebral cortex for interpretation

• Coordinating movements and helping to regulate muscle tone

• Contributing to the regulation of sleep cycles and alertness.

• maintaining a role in consciousness and keeping us conscious

Hypothalamus

a small part of the brain that controls important body functions like hunger, thirst, body temperature, and sleep.

• homeostasis

Pituitary gland

a small, pea-sized gland located at the base of the brain. It's often called the "master gland" because itcontrols the release of hormones that regulate many body functions, such as growth, metabolism, and reproduction.

Hippocampus

small, seahorse-shaped structure located deep within the brain. It plays a crucial role in memory formation and retrieval,especially for long-term memory.

Amygdala

a small, almond-shaped structure located deep within the temporal lobe of the brain. It plays a crucial role in processing emotions, particularly fear and aggression.

Corpus callosum

a thick bundle of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain, allowing communication between them

Occipital lobes

located at the back of the brain and are primarily responsible for visual processing. They receive and interpret visual information from the eyes.

Temporal lobes

located on the sides of the brain and are involved in processing sounds, memory formation, language comprehension, and emotion recognition.

Parietal lobes

located behind the frontal lobes and are involved in sensory processing, including touch, temperature, and pain. They also play a role in spatial awareness and navigation.

Association areas

parts of the cerebral cortex that integrate sensory and motor information, as well as memories and thoughts. They are responsible for higher-order cognitive functions such as problem-solving, decision-making, and language.

Somatosensory cortex

a region of the parietal lobe responsible for processing sensory information from the body, including touch, temperature, and pain. The map of the body on this cortex is known as the somatosensory homunculus, which shows that the areas of the body with the highest sensitivity (e.g., hands, face) have larger representations.

Frontal lobes

The largest lobe in the human brain, responsible for higher-order cognitive functions such as planning, decision-making,problem-solving, personality, and motor control.

Linguistic processing

the cognitive process through which our brains understand, produce, and use language. It involves a complex interplay of various brain regions that work together to process different aspects of language.

Executive functioning

• a set of cognitive skills that help us plan, organize, and execute tasks effectively. It's often likened to the "CEO" of the brain, overseeing and coordinating various mental processes.

• prefrontal cortex involved

Prefrontal cortex

• a key region of the frontal lobe, located at the front of the brain. It's often referred to as the "executive center" of the brain due to its critical role in higher-level cognitive functions.

• planning and decision making, problem solving, personality, attention + focus, memory, inhibition

Motor cortex

a region of the cerebral cortex located at the rear of the frontal lobe. It plays a crucial role in planning and executing voluntary movements.

Split brain research

a neuropsychological technique that involves studying patients who have had their corpus callosum, the major bundle of nerve fibers connecting the two hemispheres of the brain, surgically severed. This procedure is typically performed to treat severe cases of epilepsy.

• Left Hemisphere: Dominant for language, speech, and analytical thinking.

• Right Hemisphere: Dominant for spatial tasks, facial recognition, and emotional processing.

Hemispheric specialization

• the idea that the two hemispheres of the brain have distinct functions and are specialized for different tasks. This concept has been supported by research on split-brain patients and other neuropsychological studies.

• Left Hemisphere:

  • Dominant for language, speech, and analytical thinking.

  • Processes information sequentially and logically.

  • Controls the right side of the body.

• Right Hemisphere:

  • Dominant for spatial tasks, facial recognition, and emotional processing.

  • Processes information holistically and intuitively.

  • Controls the left side of the body.

  • some people may have stronger left or right side dominancexx

Broca’s area

• a region of the brain located in the left frontal lobe, specifically in the inferior frontal gyrus. It plays a crucial role in speech production.

• helps us plan the words we want to say and sequence them in a meaningful order.

• coordinates the movements of the lips, tongue, and jaw that are necessary for speech.

• contributes to our understanding and use of grammar.

Wernicke’s area

• a region of the brain located in the left temporal lobe, specifically in the posterior superior temporal gyrus. It plays a crucial role in language comprehension.

• helps us understand the meaning of spoken words.

• also plays a role in processing written language, such as reading and understanding text.

• decodes the sounds of language and relates them to their meanings.

• also plays a role in other cognitive functions, such as memory and attention.

Aphasia

• a language disorder that affects a person's ability to communicate. It can affect both spoken and written language, as well as the ability to understand language.

• most common cause of aphasia is a stroke, which occurs when blood flow to the brain is interrupted.

• brain injuries, brain tumors, etc.

Contralateral hemispheric organization

a fundamental principle in neuroscience that describes how the left and right hemispheres of the brain are connected and function. It essentially means that one side of the brain controls the opposite side of the body.

Plasticity

the brain's remarkable ability to change and adapt throughout life. This includes the formation of new neural connections,the reorganization of existing connections, and the generation of new neurons.

EEG (Electroencephalogram)

• a non-invasive test that measures the electrical activity in your brain.

• measures brain wave activity generally in the brain, not activity in specific areas.

• Electrodes: Tiny metal discs (electrodes) are placed on your scalp.

• Brain waves: The electrodes detect the electrical signals produced by your brain cells.

fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

a non-invasive imaging technique that measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow.

Lesioning

a technique used in neuroscience to study the function of specific brain regions. It involves damaging or destroying a particular area of the brain and observing the resulting changes in behavior or function.

• Phineas Gage case study

• a surgical technique that removes parts of the brain to treat psychological or physical illnesses.

Sleep

A natural state of rest for the body and mind.

Consciousness

Awareness of oneself and the environment.

Circadian rhythm

A natural 24-hour cycle that regulates your body's sleep-wake cycle, hormone production, body temperature, and other essential functions. It's influenced by external cues like sunlight, but it also has an internal "clock" that keeps you on track.

Sensation

The process of detecting stimuli through sensory organs.

Transduction

the process of converting external stimuli, like light, sound, or touch, into electrical signals that the brain can understand. For example, when you touch something hot, your skin receptors sense the heat and convert it into an electrical signal that travels to your brain, where it's interpreted as pain.