a set of concepts and relationships among those concepts that helps us understand or explain some phenomenon
2
New cards
Evidence
a set of observations in the real world
* *develops methods observed to work in a sample*
3
New cards
Practice
used when an intervention works for a client
4
New cards
Evidence Based Practice
the process of applying a scientifically sound intervention technique to a particular client
* Three components: * External scientific evidence * Clinical expertise/expert opinion * is this appropriate for this client? * Client/caregiver perspectives * client/caregiver should be given options if possible, but have overall autonomy over decision
5
New cards
Induction
type of reasoning that makes broad generalizations from specific observations
* there is data, then conclusions are drawn from the data * from observations, clinicians/scientists discern a pattern, make a generalization, and __infer__ an explanation or a theory
6
New cards
Deduction
type of reasoning that starts out with a general statement and examines the possibilities to reach a specific, logical conclusion
* the __scientific method__ uses this to test a theory, idea, or relationship, form a hypothesis, and test the hypothesis in a set of observations
7
New cards
Inferencing
“carry forward” from data to theory
8
New cards
PICOT Questions
used to help find the evidence
* __P__opulation: who is the intervention effective for? * __I__ntervention: what is the intervention? * __C__omparison: what is being compared? * __O__utcome: what do we want to change? * __T__ime: how long does it take?
9
New cards
The Scientific Method
* a search for knowledge concerning general truths * a process of __objectively__ studying a problem via collection of data * a process of constant questioning * a self-correction mechanism for knowledge acquisition * a highly controlled version of clinical decision-making
Process:
* write a research question with measurable independent and dependent variables * __test__ your hypothesis (plan and gather data) * identify potential problems in your study * write a new research question…
10
New cards
Database
organized portal which you can search multiple journals at the same time
* ex: Google Scholar, PsychInfo, EBSCO
11
New cards
Journal
a magazine-like publication of a scientific society
* ex: ASHA’s four journals; Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, American Journal of Speech Language Pathology, American Journal of Audiology, and Language, Speech, and Hearing in the Schools
12
New cards
Peer Reviewed Journal
a journal where the articles are only published after they have been reviewed by other researchers with content expertise
* often authors are required to revise and resubmit their articles * only articles with strong research designs should be published in a peer reviewed journal
13
New cards
Peer Review Process
* when authors submit to a journal, the editor determines if the article might be a good fit
* if so, article is sent out to volunteer reviewers who write up a review of the article * they can do the following; accept, accept with minor revisions, revise and resubmit, or reject
14
New cards
Double-Blind Peer Review
when neither the authors know the reviewer nor to the reviewers know the author
* this is the best quality, but can be meaner
15
New cards
Primary Study
studies that collect their own data
16
New cards
Secondary Studies
studies that review other people’s data
17
New cards
Systematic Review
* Plan for review is determined in advance * Includes ALL studies about a given topic that you can find by searching multiple databases * Includes a search strategy * Narrows down to a smaller number of articles based on inclusionary and exclusionary criteria * Reviews all the identified articles - no picking/choosing ones that match hypothesis * Determines the level of evidence (quality of evidence) for each article * Formulates an opinion based on ALL the evidence, focused on highest levels of evidence
18
New cards
Meta-Analysis
does everything a systematic review does, plus __re-analyzes__ the data from all participants in the previous studies using effect sizes
19
New cards
Randomized Controlled Trials
an experimental design in which the researcher adds or removes a variable to look at the impact of that variable of interest
* participants are randomly assigned to groups * measured across groups * measured across time * gold standard of research
also:
* between subjects (treatment vs. control, or treatment A vs. treatment B) * within subjects (DV is measured both before and after we manipulate the IV; pre vs. post) * also has __random assignment__: participants are randomly assigned to treatment or control * this attempts to eliminate the chance of group A looking different from group B *before* the treatment begins
20
New cards
Skeptical
open to new information, maintaining an attitude of constant questioning
21
New cards
Experimental Studies
implement a treatment to determine if the treatment was effective (like RCTs)
* without randomization, these studies are biased by subject selection * Include an IV and DV
22
New cards
Observational Studies
simply watch (and compare or correlate) what is happening out on the world, do not implement treatment so you cannot say whether or not a treatment was effective
* lack *control*
23
New cards
Narrative Reviews
NOT systematic
* includes expert opinion including textbooks * very bottom of study pyramid
24
New cards
Independent Variable
presumed __cause__
* the variable we manipulate * determines if the question is comparative or correlational
25
New cards
Dependent Variable
presumed __effect__
* variable we measure the change of * has to be the same or higher level of measurement as the independent variable
26
New cards
Causation
to have this, we must have
* relationship between IV and DV (correlation) * temporal precedence (IV __before__ DV) * NOTHING ELSE CAN BE THE CAUSE
27
New cards
Variable
anything that can change or be changed
* any factor that can be manipulated, controlled for, or measured in an experiment
28
New cards
Value
measurement of the variable
* metric of measurement
29
New cards
Nominal Values
aka name values, may be sets of 2 or 3
* yes/no * yes/no/maybe * rural/suburban/urban * we code these with numbers, but they are not technically numeric
30
New cards
Ordinal Values
values that have a greater than/lesser than scale
* strongly agree/agree/neutral/disagree/strongly disagree * less than high school/high school education/some college/college degree/advanced degree * we will also code these as numbers, typically in order
31
New cards
Interval Values
go in order like ordinal values but with equal spacing
* proportional values * these values are typically already in numbers * temperature (fahrenheit or celsius), time (in minutes, hours)
32
New cards
Ratio Values
values that go in order (like ordinal) and with equal spacing (like interval) but also have a true zero and cannot be negative
* age (in years, months) * height (meters, feet) or weight (lbs, kg)
33
New cards
Descriptive Questions
what is? (one variable)
* how many students in this class are first generation college students (percentage) * what is the average age of students in this major (mean)
34
New cards
Inferential Questions
how are two (or more) variables connected?
* Do first generation college students take longer to graduate than students who have family members who have previously graduated college? * Are students in CSAD, on average, younger than students in construction management?
35
New cards
Null Hypothesis
no difference/no correlation
* the treatment groups does not differ from the control group
36
New cards
Directional Hypothesis
specifies a value difference
* the treatment group __differs__ from the control group (non-directional) * the treatment group was __more__ successful than the control group (directional; comparison) * the number of hours of therapy was __positively__ associated with outcome (directional; correlation)
37
New cards
Quantitative Research
research involving numbers
38
New cards
Qualitative Research
research involving categorizations that we can code into numbers
39
New cards
Confounding Variable
other variables that may change the DV but we are not manipulating
* managed by having a control
40
New cards
Control
* done via inclusionary and exclusionary criteria * also done mathematically (“after controlling for age, we found that X was associated with Y)
41
New cards
Double-Blind Study
one group of patients may be given a placebo, while another is given the actual medication that’s being tested
* neither patients nor the researchers know which group is taking the placebo * the effects of the medication and placebos are then studied and compared with one another to determine the effectiveness of the medication itself
42
New cards
Observational Measurement
researchers observe the potential effect of a risk factor (eg. demographic variable), diagnostic test, or treatment strategy __without trying to manipulate__
* still have an IV (we just aren’t manipulating it) and a DV (outcome measure) and DV (outcome measure) and still use inferential statistics * this type of research is important because we cannot randomly assign things like smoking, which why we cannot __prove__ the impact of smoking
43
New cards
Comparative Studies
studies that examine the difference in the DV between two or more different groups (IV)
* different from experimental studies because you cannot manipulate the IV * use inclusionary and exclusionary criteria
44
New cards
Case-Control Study
researchers identify people with an existing health problem (cases) and a similar group without the problem (controls) and then compare them on a task
* type of comparative study
45
New cards
Retrospective Study
looking back, they already have the problem/concern/diagnosis when you begin the study
* type of comparative study
46
New cards
Cohort Study
researchers follow a cohort and track exposures to a variable of interest
* __compare__ the outcomes of the cohort on the basis of events/exposures * __prospective__ looking forward * type of comparative study
47
New cards
Cross-Sectional Studies
compare across groups
* cheaper * faster * more room for outside factors to have an influence (time) * type of comparative study
48
New cards
Longitudinal Studies
compare across time
* within a group * can __also__ compare between groups at multiple time points * we do not manipulate the IV * type of comparative study
49
New cards
Correlation
a __relationship__ or __association__ between two variables (IV and DV)
50
New cards
Correlational Studies
studies that identify relationships between variables of interest
* also may see the word “predict” to mean correlation * they all run between -1 and 1
51
New cards
Bimodal Distribution
distribution with two modes
* if your correlation looks like a v-shape, you __cannot__ use correlational statistics
52
New cards
Participant Randomization
* reduces bias between groups * no “opt-in” bias like in cohort designs * but may not be ethical
53
New cards
Subject Matching
e.g.- age-matched, language-matched
* control the __participants__ by inclusionary and exclusionary criteria * who is allowed to participate?
54
New cards
Counterbalancing Measurements
* control the __measurement__ order * which test do you do better on, first exam or last?
55
New cards
Statistical Control
if you know you have a confounding variable, you can remove the correlation between CV and DV before examining the relationship between the IV and DV
56
New cards
Replication
repeating a study to see if you get the same results in a different sample (same population) at a different time
* have someone else do the study over * exact/direct replication * conceptual replication