ToL Final Exam Study Guide

What is a branch of philosophy concerned with questions about the nature of knowledge and knowing?

Epistemology

What are all relatively permanent cahnges in potential behaviors that result from experience but are not caused by fatigue, maturation, drugs, injury, or disease?

learning

What is defined as statements that are more private and more personal than principles or laws?

beliefs

what is defined as statements that relate to some predicitability in nature or behavior?

principles

What is not one of the purposes of a theory?

helps categorize information into cognitive maps

What are the rules of the scientific method?

1. Ask the Question

2. Develop a Hypothesis

3. Collect Relevant Observations

4. Test the Hypothesis

5. Reach and Share a Conclusion

What is defined as the assumption that names are explanations?

nominal fallacy

What is defined as a subjects response to being studied (like the Hawthorne effect)?

subject bias

Who developed classical conditioning?

Ivan Pavlov

What type of learning says that learning always begins with an unlearned response (UR) that can reliably be elicited by a specifc stimulus (US)?

classical conditioning

What is defined as the occurrence of things both simultaneously and in the same space (often used to explain classical conditioning)?

contiguity

What is defined as a more complex concept having to do with the effects of a stimulus?

reinforcement

There are numerous variation in contiguity, which is where the CS is presented before the US and continues during the presentation of the US?

Delayed

What is defined as the formation of the stimulus response association that typically requires a number of pairings of CS and US?

acquisition

What is defined as responses, stimuli, and reinforces linked in complex ways?

higher order conditioning

Who believed that emotional behavior is simply another example of classical conditioning?

John Watson

Watson believed that all —— were born with the same emotional reflexes

people

(T/F) It is possible to condition positive emotional reactions to a neutral stimuli

True

More complex learning simply requires the conditioning of more stimulus-response sequences, eventually leading to what he called ——?

habits

Who developed the law of One-Shot learning?

Edwin Guthrie

What theory says that a combination of stimuli which as accompanies a movement will on its recurrence tend to be followed by that movement?

One-Shot learning

Guthrie says when a particular combination of stimuli reliably leads to a particular combinations of responses, we have a ——?

habit

What technique for breaking habits involves presenting the stimulus repeatedly to elicit continued repetition of the undesired response?

fatigue technique

What techniques for breaking habits involves presenting the stimulus when the response cannot occur?

incompatible stimuli technique

Who developed connectionism?

Edward Thorndike

Thorndike devised —— boxes to put cats in and experiment on them.

puzzle

Thorndike believed cats learned through —- not insight.

trial and error

What law says that. bonds between stimuli and responses are strengthened through eing exercised frequently, recently, and vigorously?

law of exercise

What law says responses just before satisfying states of affairs are more likely to be repeated?

Law of effect

What subsidiary law applies to satisfiers and annoyers and to the nature of the responses that will be emitted by a person?

Law of set or attitude

What subsidiary law says a person placed in a novel situation may react with responses that might be used in other similar situations?

law of response by analogy

Who developed the Hypothetico-Deductive System?

clark hull

Who proposed to develop a logical, scientific, and mathematical system that would fully explain human learning and behavior? 

clark hull

What is defined as the information the psychologist needs to correctly predict how a person will respond?

Input variables

What determines whether a response will occur for a stimulus?

intervening variables

what are the two fundamental assumptions Skinner’s theory is based on?

causes of behavior are outside the person, human behavior follows certain laws

Who developed Radical behaviorism?

Skinner

What type of learning is where the responses elicited by a stimulus are labeled respondents (the organism involuntarily reacts to the environment)?

Type S

What type of learning is where the responses simply emitted by an organism are labeled operants (the organism voluntarily acts on the environment)?

Type R

Skinner defines a _______________ as an event that follows a response and that changes the probability of a response’s occurring again?

reinforcer

What occurs when the consequences of the behavior, when added to a situation after a response, increase the probability of the response’s occurring again in similar circumstances?

positive reinforcement

What occurs when the probability of a response’s occurring increases as a function of something being taken away from a situation?

negative reinforcement

The effect of _________________ is the suppression or weakening of the behavior.

punishment

What is a procedure that increases the probability of behavior?

negative reinforcement

What is defined as reinforcement that occurs only some of the time and has longer extinction times but is less efficient for early training?

intermittent reinforcement

What is the elimination of behavior through the passage of time?

forgetting

What is the technique used to train animals to perform acts that are not ordinarily in their repertoire?

shaping

This involves making similar responses in different situations

generalization

What is defined as involves making different responses in similar but different situations?

discrimination

what are examples of sources of reinforcement?

tokens, consumables, visual and auditory stimuli, manipulatibles

What type of conditioning is easily learned and highly resistant to extinction?

taste aversion

Conditioning to a specific stimulus becomes difficult or impossible as a result of prior conditioning to another stimulus is called what?

blocking

What theories defining characteristic is its attention to biology and genetics as sources of explanation for human learning and behavior?

evolutionary psychology

What are learned responses that are a part of the organisms repertoire?

autoshaping

What refers to the tendency of animals to revert to instinctive unlearned behaviors?

instinctive drift

What are limitations on learning that result from biological factors not from experience?

biological constraints

Among humans what is a biologically based characteristic ordained by years of successful evolution?

altruism

What procedure is where individuals are given information about their biological functioning so that they may train and control or change their functioning?

biofeedback

What is a specific kind of feedback that involves neurological functioning?

neurofeedback

What depends on the formation of connections among neurons in the brain?

learning

What enters the brain through our senses?

information

Whose theory said that mental processes are what happens between the stimulus and the response?

Hebb

Neural cells may be reactivated repeatedly because of their own activity, causing a circular pattern of firing called ________________.

cell assembly

If a number of related cell assemblies are active at the same time they will become linked in a _____________.

phase sequence

Who believed that all behavior has purpose and that all actions are directed toward some goal by cognitions?

Edward Tolman

what are the four main themes of Purposive Behaviorism?

behavior is cognitive, purposive, reinforcement establishes and confirms expentancies

Learning in Purposive Behaviorism involves the development of ________________________?

cognitive maps

Who observed problem-solving abilities in apes and said that they used insight not trial and error learning?

Wolfgang Kohler

Solving a problem by perceiving relationships among all the important elements of the situation?

insight

What is the act of completing a pattern?

closure

What is defined as a tendency toward symmetry or toward a toning down of the peculiarities of a particular pattern?

leveling

What is defined as the tendency to emphasize the distinctiveness of a pattern?

sharpening

The most important topics of _________________ ___________________ is that they presuppose mental representation and information processing?

cognitive psychology

Who suggests that the representational systems children use as they develop closely parallel the history of human invention?

Jerome Bruner

What are the three types of mental representation?

enactive, iconic, symbolic

Which type of representation is defined as inventions that amplify intellectual capacities

symbolic representation

What is defined as a group of related objects or events?

categories

What is essential to systematic reasoning?

coding systems

All ____________ also involve classifying.

decisions

What involves discovering the attributes that may be useful in distinguishing between members and non-members of the class?

concept attainment

Which stage of play is associated with children believing the rules come from God and cannot be changed?

stage 2

The ability to imitate things and people not immediately present is called what?

deferred imitation

Whose theory looked at the process by which children active a progressively more advanced understanding of their environment and of themselves?

Jean Piaget

What involves responding to using previous learning?

assimilation

What is defined as changes in behavior in response to environmental demands?

accommodation

Abstract relations and the hypothetical nature of thought are a part of what cognitive stage of development?

formal operations - after 11/12 years

Whose theory emphasized how culture and social interactions are involved with the development of human consciousness?

Lev Vygotsky

Which is not one of the unifying themes of the Cultural/Cognitive Theory?

the role of the parent

What is defined as the relationship between learner/teacher or the parent/child, it is what the child can do with help from another but not on their own?

zone of proximal growth

What is defined as various types of support teachers/parents provide children if they are to learn?

scaffolding

What is defined as models, procedures, devices, or mechanisms intended to simulate or duplicate some of the intelligent functions of human mental activity?

AI

Why might people might want to make a smarter computer?

it might clarify questions about the human cognitive process, free up time allowing people to do other things

What is something that computers cannot do for humans?

think for us

What is slower, a brain or a computer?

brain

What can store more information, brain or computer?

brain

Which is not an approach to the computer-based study of human cognitive processes?

fuzzy logic

How might learning might occur in a neural network?

old connections lost, new connections develop, probability that one unit will activate another

What is logic that is relativistic, considers a variety of factors, and has a not entirely predictable probability of being correct?

fuzzy logic

What is defined as the ability to retain and retrieve recollections of past events or experiences or acquired information?

memory

What is defined as past learning that cannot be remembered consciously but can affect later behavior?

implicit memory