Combined NCE flashcards

In Freudian theory, which stage is

Oral, first stage, and occurs while the child is still an

attachment a focus of?

infant

Erikson's Stages Mistrust vs. Trust

Shame vs. Autonomy Guilt vs. Initiative Inferiority vs. Industry Role confusion vs. Identity Intimacy vs. Isolation Generativity vs. Stagnation Despair vs. Integrity

Psychodiagnostic The study of personality through interpretation of

behavior or nonverbal cues; can be used to label diagnostically

Psychopharmacology Studies the effects that drugs have on psychological

functions

Id contains a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy

that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification

Ego the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality

that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain; can use defense mechanisms as unconscious strategies to protect ourselves

Superego the part of personality that, according to Freud,

represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations; the moralistic and idealistic portion of the personality

dualistic thinking cognitive tendency to see situations and issues in

polarized, absolute, black-and-white terms (William Perry)

Relativistic thinking the idea that in many situations there is not necessarily

one right or wrong answer, but an answer can exist relative to a specific situation

Conservation (Piaget) the realization that properties of objects remain the

same even when appearance changes (i.e. a tall skinny pitcher of water is emptied into a small, squatty pitcher - a child indicates that it now has less water); Occurs in the concrete operational stage along with counting (C, C, C)

Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory the approach that emphasizes how cognitive

development proceeds as a result of social interactions between members of a culture

preoperational stage in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7

years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic; includes the acquisition of a symbolic schema

concrete operational stage in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development

(from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

formal operational stage in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development

(normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

Reversibility (Piaget) one can undo an action, hence an object can return

to its initial shape. A child masters this concept in the third stage, known as concrete operation or concrete operational thought.

Egocentrism (Piaget) the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's

point of view

What theorist uses the term "identity

Erikson

Zone of Proximal Development Pioneered by Lev Vygotsky, describes the difference

between a child's performance without a teacher versus that which he or she is capable of with an instructor.

Maturationists Freud, Erikson, Gisell; The concept of the maturation

hypothesis (also known as the maturation theory) suggests that behavior is guided exclusively via hereditary factors, but that certain behaviors will not manifest themselves until the necessary stimuli are present in the environment. In addition, the theory suggests that the individual's neural development must be at a certain level of maturity for the behavior to unfold. A counselor who believes in this concept strives to unleash inborn abilities, instincts, and drives. The client's childhood and the past are seen as important therapeutic topic

John Bowlby Saw bonding and attachment as having survival value,

or what is often called adaptive significance; insisted that in order to lead a normal social life the child must bond with an adult before the age of 3. If the bond is severed at an early age, it is known as "object loss," and this is said to be the breeding ground for abnormal behavior, or what is often called psychopathology. ("B" = bonding).

In which Eriksonian stage does the

Generativity versus stagnation

Harry Harlow Well known for his work with maternal deprivation and

isolation in rhesus monkeys (believed that attachment was an innate tendency and not one which is learned; Monkeys placed in isolation developed autistic abnormal behavior; When these monkeys were placed in cages with normally reared monkeys some remission of the dysfunctional behavior was noted)

Maccoby and Jacklin Found very few differences that could be attributed to

genetics and biological factors. The superiority of males in the area of mathematics, however, was not significant until high school or perhaps college. Girls who excelled in science and math often identified with their fathers and were encouraged to value initiative and were given independence. Thus, the major impetus for sex-role differences may come from child-rearing patterns rather than bodily chemistry.

Freud Psychosexual Stages Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency (only non primarily

psychosexual stage), and Genital

Heredity assumes the normal person has 23 pairs of

chromosomes, that characteristics are transmitted by chromosomes, and assumes genes composed of DNA hold a genetic code

Heritability The portion of a trait that can be explained via genetic

factors

Sensorimotor Stage in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2

years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

Stages of Jean Piaget's Theory of

sensorimotor (memorization hint: motor skills = 1st

Cognitive Development

skills), preoperations, concrete operations (memorization hint: black/white thinking), formal operations (memorization hint: formal = final)

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral

6 identifiable developmental stages of moral

Development

reasoning which form the basis of ethical behavior, the pre-conventional (level 1) contains the first stage (obedience and punishment orientation and second stage (self-interest orientation)), the conventional (level 2) contains the third stage (interpersonal accord and conformity) and fourth stage (authority and social-order maintaining orientation) the post- convential (level 3) contains the 5th stage (social contract orientation) and 6th stage (universal ethical principles); sequence of stages of moral reasoning (3 levels, 6 stages): preconventional (child responds to consequences, reward and punishment influence behavior), conventional (the individual wants to meet the standards of the family, society, and even the nation), and postconventional (individual is concerned with universal, ethical principles of justice, dignity, and equality of human rights))

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral

Developing children progress through a predictable

Oedipus complex according to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his

mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father; Occurs during the PHALLIC STAGE; the most "controversial" aspect of Freud's theory

Electra complex Conflict during phallic stage in which girls supposedly

love their fathers romantically and want to eliminate their mothers as rivals

Gibson Researched the matter of depth perception in

children using the visual cliff; demonstrated that depth perception is an inborn trait.

Empiricism the view that knowledge originates in experience and

that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation (quantitative changes); grew out of the philosophy of John Locke; a behavioristic view

Organicism A theorist who views developmental changes as

qualitative; used to describe psychologist such as Gesalt, Goldstein, who emphasizes a holistic model

object permanence the awareness that things continue to exist even when

not perceived; "out of sight out of mind"; children need REPRESENTATIONAL THOUGHT in order to master this; occurs during the sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years)

Fixation according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-

seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved; implies that the individual is unable to go from one developmental stage to the next

Instincts Innate behaviors that do not need to be practiced or

learned; manifests itself in all normal members of a given species

Ethology Often associated with the work of Konrad Lorenz

refers to the study of animals behavior in their natural environment

Centration Occurs in the preoperational stage and is

characterized by focusing on a key feature of a given object while not noticing the rest of it (Piaget)

William Glasser Father of Reality Therapy; believes that dwelling on

past failures can reinforce negative self-concept and only reflects on the past in terms of successful behaviors; feels that diagnostic labels give clients permission to act sick/irresponsible; his work was popularized in educational circles after he wrote "schools without failure"

Negative reinforcement Occurs when the removal of a stimulus increases the

probability that an antecedent behavior will occur. Never forget: All reinforcers—positive and negative— increase the probability that a behavior will occur.

Positive reinforcement The addition of a stimulus strengthens or increases a

behavior

C. G. Jung the father of analytic psychology. The anima

represents the female characteristics of the personality while the animus represents the male characteristics. (Two super memory devices are that men generally have muscles [ani"mus"] and ma means mother, who is female [ani"ma"].) Jung calls the anima and the animus "archetypes," which are inherited unconscious factors; said men operate on logic or the "Logos" principle and women are intuitive, operating on the "Eros" principle; used mandala drawings

Research by Daniel Levinson Levinson and his colleagues discovered that adult

developmental transitions in white-collar and blue- collar men seemed to be relatively universal; 80% of the men in the study experienced moderate to severe midlife crises, and an age 30 crisis occurs in men when they feel it will soon be too late to make later changes

learned helplessness connotes a pattern in which a person is exposed to

situations that he or she is truly powerless to change and then begins to believe he or she has no control over the environment. Such a person can become easily depressed. This concept is generally associated with the work of Martin E. P. Seligman, who experimentally induced learned helplessness in dogs via giving them electric shocks while placed in a harness. These dogs—unlike untrained dogs—did not even try to escape the painful shocks when the harnesses were removed.

Konrad Lorenz Believed that aggression is an inborn tendency, and is

part of our evolution and necessary for survival; primary work in imprinting as well

Imprinting An instinct in which a newborn will follow a moving

object (Konrad Lorenz)

Carl Rogers Created non directive counseling, aka client-centered

counseling and/or person-centered counseling; characterized by an existential or humanistic approach; uses reflection and rarely gives advice; uses empathy, congruence, genuineness, and demonstrates unconditional positive regard to create the "I-Thou" relationship

Frank Parsons The father of vocational guidance, set up centers in

the early 1900s to help individuals in search of work; the first pioneer to focus heavily on sociocultural issues in the US; wrote "Choosing a Vocation" in 1909

critical period a time when an organism is susceptible to a specific

developmental process; marks the importance of heredity and environment on development. In hu- mans, for example, language acquisition is thought to begin at around age 2 and ends at about age 14; makes imprinting possible and signifies a special time when a behavior must be learned or the behavior won't be learned at all

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Humanistic psychology; Postules that lower-order

physiological and safety needs and higher-order needs, such as self-actualization; Survival --> Security --> safety --> love --> self-esteem --> self- actualization; self-actualization means the person becomes all he or she can be; interviewed the best people he could find who escaped "the psychology of the average"

Jean Piaget A structuralist who believes stage changes are

qualitative; Sensorimotor - preoperational - concrete operational - formal operational; each stage is a way of making sense out of the world

Equilibration In Piagetian nomenclature, the balance between

assimilation and accommodation

Assimilation Piaget referred to this as the act of taking in new

information

Accommodation What assimilation results in, which is a modification of

the child's cognitive structures (schemas) to deal with the new information (Piaget)

Maturational viewpoint of

This viewpoint utilizes the plant growth analogy, in

development

which the mind is seen as being driven by instincts while the environment provides nourishment, thus placing limits on development. Counselors allow clients to work through early conflicts, acting nonjudgmental and creating a safe, therapeutic relationship

Fixed Action Pattern (FAP) a type of innate behavior (instinct.) The FAP is a

preprogrammed response to a particular stimulus (known as a releaser stimulus). FAP's include courtship behaviors and feeding of young. These are not learned behaviors, they are automatically performed without any prior experience.

Robert Kegan Stated the client cam make a meaning in the face of a

crisis and can find new direction ("holding environment"). His sic stages of development are 1) incorporative 2) impulsive 3) imperial 4) interpersonal 5) institutional 6) interindividual

Equilibration (Piaget) organize their schemes (current cognitive structures)

to achieve the best possible adaptation to their environment and "reach balance"; children change their "schemas" to accommodation novel or new information and to reach this balance

anal retentive personality a person fixated in the anal stage who is neat, fussy,

stingy, and stubborn

Culture Customs shared by a group which distinguish it from

other groups; values shared by a group that are learned from others in the group; attitudes, beliefs, art, and language which characterize members of a group

multicultural counseling A helping role and a process that uses modalities and

defines goals consistent with the life experiences and cultural values of diverse clients

Eric Berne father of transactional analysis; NOT instrumental in

the early years of social psychology

Which theorists would say that

Freud and Lorenz

social learning theory Generally related to the work of Albert Bandura; the

theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating, and by being rewarded or punished; this contradicts the "innate/instinct aggression theory" by emphasizing environment rather than genetics

Daniel Levinson Wrote Seasons of a Man's Life and Seasons of a

Woman's Life; He viewed midlife crises as positive things, stating that those who do not face a midlife crisis could become stagnant later in life - avoiding the crises could lead to a lack of vitality later; early adult transition --> age 30 transition --> settling down --> midlife transition --> later adulthood

The three factors which enhance

close proximity, physical attraction, and similar beliefs

Contextualism Behavior must be assessed in the context of the

culture in which the behavior occurs

Carol Gilligan's critique of Kohlberg's

Lawrence Kohlberg conducted many studies on moral

theory

reasoning. His research had a distinct male bias as not many of his subjects that he surveyed and interviewed were female. He seems to suggest that males often reason through moral issues at higher levels than females. Gilligan pointed out the male bias in Kohlberg's research and argued that females have different ways of reasoning through moral issues and this does not make them inferior to male reasoning but only points out that the females value different things when trying to reason through moral issues.

prognosis the probability that one can recover from a condition;

the probable outcome in a case

recommendations when a counselor speaks of what he or she believes

must transpire from a psychotherapeutic standpoint

Some research suggests that very

aggression

frustration-aggression theory the theory that frustration - the perception that you

are being prevented from attaining a goal - increases the probability of an aggressive response

Albert Ellis father of Rational Emotive Therapy, which focuses on

altering client's patterns of irrational thinking to reduce maladaptive behavior and emotion (like, "if I fail the AP exam my life will come to an end"); does not agree with the frustration-aggression theory, and feels that many clients DO believe that frustration causes aggression, and this is due to the client's irrational thought process rather than some automatic response pattern; feels that irrational thinking at "point B" is at the core of emotional disturbance

cognitive dissonance theory (Leon

the balance theory that we act to reduce the

Festinger)

discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when our awareness of our attitudes and of our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes; dissonance is often reduced using denial (for example: "I'd rather smoke three packs of cigarettes a day and enjoy myself than quit and live an extra year or two," would be an example of cognitive dissonance in action); this theory predicts that the person will look for things that are consistent with his/her behavior

culture norms the set of values, ideas, and attitudes that are learned

and shared among the members of a group; provides individuals with standards of conduct and expectations of how one should act

Mores beliefs regarding the rightness or wrongness of

behavior; develop as a given group decides what is good and bad for the welfare of the people; people are generally punished for violating this, where as violating "folkways" results in embarrassment (not harm/punishment)

Ecological culture implies cultural norms are the result of practical and

survival behaviors related to the climate or the resources in a given physical or geological environment.

Universal Culture contains all humans all having the same biology and

basic biological needs

Emory Bogardus' Scale used to measure social distance empirically and

describes different degrees of social contact or social distance; evaluated how an individual felt toward other ethnic groups

foot-in-the-door technique asking for a small commitment and, after gaining

compliance, asking for a bigger commitment; i.e. a counselor would first ask if they can come into the home when doing a home visit, then continue with larger requests (i.e. medical history)

society vs culture Culture is defined primarily via norms and values,

whereas a society is a self-perpetuating independent group which occupies a definitive territory; all members of a given society may not share the same culture, whereas cultures operate within societies

Ethnocentrism evaluation of other cultures according to

preconceptions originating in the standards and customs of one's own culture; conveys the notion that one's own group is superior; opinion-based (not fact- based); promotes a sense of patriotism and national sovereignty, stability and pride, yet danger in the nuclear age

modal personality those character traits that occur with the highest

frequency in a social group and are therefore the most representative of its culture

social exchange theory the theory that our social behavior is an exchange

process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs; a relationship will endure if the rewards are greater than the costs

balance theory a theory holding that people try to maintain balance

among their beliefs, cognitions, and sentiments; a move from cognitive inconsistency (dissonance) to consistency and the tendency to achieve a balanced cognitive state

the theory of "terminal drop" or

Postulates that a dramatic decrease in intellectual

"terminal decline"

functioning does occur in the geriatric population, but even according to this theory, it only occurs during the final five years of life; financial security and health are the best predictors of retirement adjustment

Scapegoating The tendency for individuals, when frustrated or

unhappy, to displace aggression onto groups that are disliked, visible, and relatively powerless

Denial Defense mechanism by which people refuse to

accept reality.

Displacement psychoanalytic defense mechanism that shifts sexual

or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person, as when redirecting anger toward a safer outlet; or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person, as when redirecting anger toward a safer outlet (Someone is mad at their boss and comes home and unleashes on someone else)

Projection psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people

disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others

active-directive model Works best with people who respond well to an

authority figure (like some traditional cultures); passivity on the part of the counselor would be viewed in a negative manner, the client would be disappointed if they didn't receive advice, and assigning homework would be appropriate