Understanding Brain Development and Emotional Responses

Neurons and glial cells

Brains are made up of neurons and glial cells, which are developed and structured according to genetic instructions.

DNA code

DNA code serves as instructions for making proteins, which carry out functions in cells and build brain structures.

Neuronal diversity

Differences in gene expression, environment, and epigenetic factors create neuronal diversity.

Blueprint for a brain

The blueprint for a brain is conserved across evolution; the basic structure and many genes are highly conserved across species.

Minor differences in DNA

Minor differences in the DNA blueprint can lead to significant differences as small changes can alter protein function or gene regulation, affecting brain development and behavior.

Genotype

Genotype is an organism's genetic makeup.

Phenotype

Phenotype is the observable traits resulting from genotype and environment.

Gene interaction

Genes do not work in isolation; they interact with each other and with the environment.

Gene-environment interaction

Genes influence traits, environments influence gene expression, and both shape the phenotype.

Epigenetics

Epigenetics is the study of changes in gene expression that don't alter DNA sequence but are influenced by environment.

Heritability

Heritability is the proportion of variation in a trait within a population that can be attributed to genetic differences.

Twin studies

Twin studies show that many traits, including intelligence and personality, have significant heritable components.

Heritability topic

Heritability is a fraught topic as it can be misinterpreted; high heritability doesn't mean immutability, and it varies by population and context.

Phenotype prediction

Accurate predictions about a phenotype based on genotype cannot be made because phenotypes result from complex gene-environment interactions.

Neuropsychiatric disorders

Neuropsychiatric disorders have a genetic basis; most have genetic components but also involve environmental and epigenetic influences.

Emotion

An emotion is a complex psychological state involving subjective feelings, physiological arousal, and behavioral expressions.

Aspects of emotions

The three aspects of emotions are feelings (subjective), autonomic responses (e.g., heart rate), and somatic responses (e.g., facial expressions).

Functions of emotions

Emotions help us communicate, make decisions, and respond to environmental challenges.

Darwin's view of emotion

Darwin's evolutionary view of emotion suggests that emotions evolved to aid survival and are universal across species.

Facial expressions

Facial expressions are important because they communicate emotions and social intent nonverbally.

Ekman's basic emotions

Ekman identified six (or seven) basic emotions: Happiness, sadness, fear, anger, disgust, surprise (and sometimes contempt).

Ekman's research

Ekman's research was conducted by studying facial expressions across cultures, including isolated groups.

Innate emotions evidence

Evidence suggesting these emotions are innate includes cross-cultural consistency and expression in infants and blind individuals.

Display rules

Display rules are social norms that dictate the appropriate expressions of emotions in various contexts.

Cultural norms

Cultural norms that regulate how, when, and where emotions are expressed.

Discrete vs. dimensional approach to emotions

Discrete: emotions are separate categories; Dimensional: emotions vary on scales like valence and arousal.

Three main contributors to happiness

Genetics, life circumstances, and intentional activities.

Changing our happiness

Practice gratitude, mindfulness, and meaningful social engagement.

Responses to emotional images

Typical responses vary by arousal/valence; psychopaths show less emotional arousal, phobics show heightened responses.

Stress for college students

Very common; it's one of the leading mental health issues on campuses.

Three major sources of stress

Daily hassles, major life changes, and chronic stressors.

Stress

A physical and psychological response to perceived threats or challenges.

Type A personality

Competitive, impatient, aggressive—more prone to stress and heart disease.

Type B personality

Relaxed, easy-going—less affected by stress.

Traits associated with coronary heart disease

Hostility, chronic anger, and Type A behaviors.

Impact of stress on physical health

It can weaken the immune system, increase inflammation, and raise disease risk.

General Adaptation Syndrome

A three-stage stress response: Alarm (fight/flight), Resistance (coping), Exhaustion (resources depleted).

Yerkes-Dodson Law

Performance increases with arousal to a point, then declines—optimal arousal varies by task difficulty.

Mindset and stress management

Viewing stress as a challenge instead of a threat can improve coping and performance.

Traumatic events

Yes, most people experience at least one in their lifetime.

Trauma vs. stress

Trauma is a severe, overwhelming stressor that can cause lasting psychological impact.

PTSD

No, many effective treatments exist such as therapy (CBT, EMDR) and medication.

Gains from trauma

Yes, some report personal growth, but long-term behavioral change is less consistent.

Intrinsic vs. extrinsic rewards

Intrinsic rewards are satisfying in themselves; extrinsic rewards provide external benefits (e.g., money, grades).

Performance vs. mastery orientation

Performance: focus on outcomes/validation; Mastery: focus on learning/improvement.

Fixed vs. growth mindset

Fixed: belief that abilities are static; Growth: belief that abilities can be developed through effort.

Biopsychosocial model

A model viewing health as influenced by biological, psychological, and social factors.

Stress appraisals

How we evaluate a stressor—Primary: is it a threat? Secondary: can I cope?

Humor and coping

Yes, it can reduce stress and improve mood and resilience.