11. Social Structure & Demographics (13%)

Social Structure

Sociology: Theories & Institutions

A system of people within a society organized by a characteristic pattern of relationships.

It's the framework—both micro (small groups, networks) and macro (societal institutions)—that organizes social life beyond individual whims.

Symbolic Interactionism

Sociology: Theories & Institutions

WORD BANK: Symbolic Interactionism, Rational Choice Theory, Social Constructionism, Conflict Theory, Exchange Theory, Feminist Theory, Structural-Functionalism

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The study of how individuals interact through a shared understanding of words, gestures, and other symbols

Pioneered by George Herbert Mead

According to this theory, humans are different from lower animals in that lower animals simply respond to stimuli, while humans have the capability to interpret the stimulus first, then react

Symbols

Sociology: Theories & Institutions

Things to which we attach meaning

Can be an object, image, sound, or action

It is anything that carries meaning beyond its own existence

Social Constructs

Sociology: Theories & Institutions

Any idea that has been created and accepted by the people in a society

EX: symbols

Social Constructionism

Sociology: Theories & Institutions

WORD BANK: Symbolic Interactionism, Rational Choice Theory, Social Constructionism, Conflict Theory, Exchange Theory, Feminist Theory, Structural-Functionalism

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Focuses on how individuals put together their social reality by communicating and working together to agree on the significance of a concept or principle

A theory that reality, knowledge, and meaning aren't inherent but are created and shaped by our social interactions, language, and cultural contexts, emphasizing that concepts like gender, race, and even health are shared understandings that evolve, not fixed truths.

It posits that we collectively build our understanding of the world through communication and agreement, influencing how we perceive ourselves and others.

Useful for explaining micro- and meso-level sociological phenomena

Rational Choice Theory

Sociology: Theories & Institutions

WORD BANK: Symbolic Interactionism, Rational Choice Theory, Social Constructionism, Conflict Theory, Exchange Theory, Feminist Theory, Structural-Functionalism

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Focuses on decision-making in an individual

Claims that people weigh the costs and benefits when making choices, ranking their options based on maximizing perceived benefit

Influenced by the study of economics

An individual carefully considers all of the possible rewards and punishments of each social action and chooses the option that results in the greatest social benefit

Useful for explaining some micro- and meso-level sociological phenomena (except for charitable, illogical, selfish, or altruistic behavior)

Exchange Theory

Sociology: Theories & Institutions

WORD BANK: Symbolic Interactionism, Rational Choice Theory, Social Constructionism, Conflict Theory, Exchange Theory, Feminist Theory, Structural-Functionalism

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Extension of rational choice theory that focuses on interactions in groups

People evaluate whether there is reciprocity and balance in social relationships

Views relationships as a cost-benefit analysis, where individuals seek to maximize rewards (companionship, support) and minimize costs (time, effort, conflict) in social interactions, deciding to maintain or end relationships based on perceived fairness and profitability

Conflict Theory

Sociology: Theories & Institutions

WORD BANK: Symbolic Interactionism, Rational Choice Theory, Social Constructionism, Conflict Theory, Exchange Theory, Feminist Theory, Structural-Functionalism

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Focuses on how power differentials contribute to the maintenance of social order

Individuals in the group with more power attempt to preserve their power by shaping the structure of society itself

For the more powerful in society, maintenance of the status quo is usually desirable and, for the less powerful, change comes through disruption and revolution

Useful for explaining macro-level sociological phenomena

Based on the works of Karl Marx

Structural-Functionalism

Sociology: Theories & Institutions

WORD BANK: Symbolic Interactionism, Rational Choice Theory, Social Constructionism, Conflict Theory, Exchange Theory, Feminist Theory, Structural-Functionalism

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The study of the structure and function of each part of a society

The inverse of Conflict Theory

Views society as interconnected parts (institutions like family, education) working together to maintain stability, much like organs in a body

Durkheim compared society to an organism and proposed that each group in society has a role to play in the overall health and operation of society

Dysfunctions

Sociology: Theories & Institutions - Dysfunctions vs. Manifest Functions vs. Latent Functions

The harmful consequences of people's actions as defined by Structural-Functionalism

Negative consequences that destabilize the system (e.g., crime, drug abuse in schools).

Manifest Functions

Sociology: Theories & Institutions - Dysfunctions vs. Manifest Functions vs. Latent Functions

The intended positive consequences of people's actions as defined by Structural-Functionalism.

The purpose is understood by society members and is clearly states and observable.

EX: A school’s purpose to educate; healthcare’s purpose to cure illness and promote wellness; law enforcement’s purpose to maintain public safety and enforce laws

Latent Functions

Sociology: Theories & Institutions - Dysfunctions vs. Manifest Functions vs. Latent Functions

The unintended positive consequences of people's actions as defined by Structural-Functionalism.

The unintended, unrecognized, and often hidden consequences of social actions, institutions, or structures.

They aren't immediately obvious or acknowledged by participants.

EX: within education → teaching obedience, social skills, and serving as a matchmaking venue.

Feminist Theory

Sociology: Theories & Institutions

WORD BANK: Symbolic Interactionism, Rational Choice Theory, Social Constructionism, Conflict Theory, Exchange Theory, Feminist Theory, Structural-Functionalism

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Critiques the institutional power structures that disadvantage women in society

Originally developed as an offshoot of conflict theory

Glass Ceiling

Sociology: Theories & Institutions - Glass Escalator vs. Glass Ceiling

Processes that limit the progress of women to the highest job positions because of invisible social barriers to promotion, as defined by Feminist Theory

Glass Escalator

Sociology: Theories & Institutions - Glass Escalator vs. Glass Ceiling

Invisible forces that sometimes push men up to higher positions even in cases where men do not seek to climb the job ladder, as defined by Feminist Theory

Social Institutions

Sociology: Theories & Institutions

Well-established social structures that dictate certain patterns of behaviors or relationships and are accepted as a fundamental part of culture

Regulate the behavior of individuals in core areas of society

Stable, enduring patterns of organized beliefs, behaviors, and relationships (like family, government, education, economy, religion) that meet fundamental societal needs, provide structure, regulate individual actions through norms, and form the framework for social order and cultural values.

They act as societal "backbones," guiding how people interact, learn roles (socialization), and understand their world, influencing self-perception and social justice.

Exist at the meso-level of sociological analysis

Hidden Curriculum

Sociology: Theories & Institutions

The social norms, attitudes, beliefs and other things that are not directly taught in schools but is inherently included within education.

Teacher Expectancy

Sociology: Theories & Institutions

The idea that teachers tend to get what they expect from their students

A teacher who places high demands on students but who also believes that students can rise to the challenge is more likely to see students succeed than a teacher who places the same demands but doubts that the students can achieve them

Religiosity

Sociology: Theories & Institutions

How religious a person considers themselves to be

Includes the strength of religious beliefs, engagement in religious practices, and attitudes about religion itself

Secularization

Sociology: Theories & Institutions

The movement from a world dominated by religion to a world dominated by science and rationality.

Fundamentalism

Sociology: Theories & Institutions

When a religion is rigid and resists secularization by strictly adhering to their religious code.

Sick Role

Sociology: Theories & Institutions

The role undertaken by patients who are ill

Such patients are not responsible for their illness and are exempt from social roles, but a patient has the obligation to want to become well and to seek out competent help

Beneficence, Nonmaleficence, Respect for Patient Autonomy, Justice

Sociology: Theories & Institutions

The 4 key tenets of American medicine.

Beneficence

Sociology: Theories & Institutions - Key Tenets of American Medicine

WORD BANK: Nonmaleficence, Beneficence, Justice, Respect for Patient Autonomy

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A physician is obligated to act in the patient's best interest.

Nonmaleficence

Sociology: Theories & Institutions - Key Tenets of American Medicine

WORD BANK: Nonmaleficence, Beneficence, Justice, Respect for Patient Autonomy

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Do no harm.

Respect for Patient Autonomy

Sociology: Theories & Institutions - Key Tenets of American Medicine

WORD BANK: Nonmaleficence, Beneficence, Justice, Respect for Patient Autonomy

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A physician must honor the decisions made by the patient.

Justice

Sociology: Theories & Institutions - Key Tenets of American Medicine

WORD BANK: Nonmaleficence, Beneficence, Justice, Respect for Patient Autonomy

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A physician has the responsibility to treat similar patients with similar care, and to distribute resources fairly.

Material Culture

Culture

The physical items one associates with a given group such as artwork, emblems, clothing, jewelry, foods, buildings, and tools

Meaning of objects in a given society

Often a tangible embodiment of the underlying ideas of symbolic culture

Symbolic Culture (aka Nonmaterial Culture)

Culture

The shared, non-material aspects of a society—like language, beliefs, values, ideas, norms, gestures, and rituals—that people use to create meaning, communicate, and understand their world, differentiating humans and forming the core of social identity and interaction

May be encoded in mottos, songs, or catchphrases, or may simply be themes that are pervasive in the culture

Culture Lag

Culture

The gap or delay when symbolic culture (beliefs, norms, values) struggles to adapt to rapid changes in material culture (technology, physical inventions), leading to social problems, confusion, or conflict as old customs clash with new realities

EX: whereas American culture still prizes individuality and privacy, the development of smartphones and social media push toward a more community-oriented and less private world

Cultural Barriers

Culture

When a culture impedes interaction with others.

Obstacles from differing beliefs, values, norms, or communication styles that block understanding, leading to misinterpretation, mistrust, and conflict between people from different backgrounds

Ritual

Culture

A formalized ceremony that usually involves specific material objects, symbolism, and additional mandates on acceptable behavior

Tend to have a prescribed order of events or routine

Life Course Approach (or Perspective)

Demographics

Considering an individual’s age and cumulative life experiences when analyzing their personality, social status, health, and other social metrics

Gender Stratification

Demographics

Any inequality in access to social resources that is based on gender

May occur in the presence of gender inequality

Race

Demographics - Race vs. Ethnicity

Socially constructed groupings of people based specifically on inherited phenotypic characteristics.

Ethnicity

Demographics - Race vs. Ethnicity

Socially constructed groupings of people based on cultural factors such as shared language, cultural heritage, religion, and/or national origin

Symbolic Ethnicity

Demographics

A specific connection to one's ethnicity in which ethnic symbols and identity remain important, even when ethnic identity does not play a significant role in everyday life

EX: Irish Americans in the US celebrating St. Patrick’s Day

Demographic Shifts

Demographics

Changes in the makeup of a population over time

Can be measured considering the population density

Fertility Rate

Demographics

The average number of children born to a woman during their lifetime in a population

In many parts of the world, this is the primary driver of population expansion

Mortality Rate

Demographics

The number of deaths in a population per unit time

Serve as a significant brake on population growth in many parts of the world

Migration

Demographics

The movement of individuals into or out of a place

Contributor to population growth

Can be motivated by both pull factors and push factors

Immigration

Demographics - Immigration vs. Emigration

Migration INTO a place.

Emigration

Demographics - Immigration vs. Emigration

Migration OUT OF a place.

Pull Factors

Demographics - Pull vs. Push Factors

Positive attributes of the new location that attracts new residents

Influences immigration

Push Factors

Demographics - Pull vs. Push Factors

Negative attributes of the old location that encourage existing residents to leave

Influences emigration

Demographic Transition

Demographics

A specific example of demographic shift in which a country moves from high birth/death rates to low birth/death rates through time.

Can be seen when a country develops from a pre-industrial to an industrial economic system.

Malthusian Theory

Demographics

Theory focusing on how the exponential growth of a population can outpace the growth of food supply and lead to social degradation and disorder, resulting in a hypothetical mass starvation.

Similar to the death phase in bacteria when resources in the environment have been depleted.

Relative Deprivation

Demographics

A decrease in resources, representation, or agency relative to the whole of society, or relative to what the group is accustomed to in the past

Often motivates social movements

Proactive

Demographics - Proactive vs. Reactive

Describes social movements that PROMOTE social change.

Reactive

Demographics - Proactive vs. Reactive

Describes social movements that RESIST social change.

Globalization

Demographics

The practice of integrating the global economy with free trade and the tapping of foreign markets

Leads to a decrease in the geographical constraints on social and cultural exchanges and can lead to both positive and negative effects