AP Psych - Unit 6: Developmental Psychology

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies biological, psychological, and social change throughout the life span

nature vs. nurture

major issue in developmental psych; how does our genetic inheritance interact with our experiences to influence our development

continuity vs. stages

major issue in developmental psych; what parts of development are gradual and continuous, and what parts happen abruptly in separate stages

stability vs. change

major issue in developmental psych; which traits persist throughout life, and which change as we age

prenatal development

period of development from conception until birth

conception

The moment of fertilization, when a sperm penetrates the egg, forming a zygote

zygote

the first stage of prenatal development, from the moment of conception to the second week

embryo

the second stage of prenatal development, from the second week to the ninth week

placenta

a structure that transfers nutrients and oxygen from the mother to the developing human

fetus

the third stage of prenatal development; from the ninth week to the moment of birth

teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

fetal alcohol syndrome

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking

epigenetic effect

environmental influence on gene expression, in which chemical marks on DNA switch genes abnormally on or off

reflexes

unlearned, organized involuntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli

rooting reflex

a baby's unlearned involuntary response to a touch on the cheek; turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation

maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

pruning

a use-it-or-lose-it process in which unused neural links are shut down and used neural links are strengthened

cognitive development

changes in ability or capacity to think, know, remember, and communicate

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

schema

the concepts and hierarchies we form to help us organize and interpret information

assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

accommodation

adapting our current schemas to incorporate new information

sensorimotor stage

the first stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development (from birth to 2 years) in which a child knows the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

baby physics

an intuitive understanding of laws of physics, demonstrated when infants react distinctly to viewing physically-impossible scenes

baby math

an intuitive understanding of laws of mathematics, demonstrated when infants react distinctly to viewing mathematically-impossible scenes

preoperational stage

the second stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development (from 2 years to 6 or 7 years) in which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

pretend play

make-believe activities in which children create new symbolic relations

egocentrism

difficulty taking another's point of view

theory of mind

awareness of our own and other's thoughts, feelings, perceptions, and behaviors

concrete operational stage

the third stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development (from 6 or 7 years to 11 years) in which a child gains mental operations that enables them to think logically bout concrete events

mathematical transformations

logical judgements involving basic arithmetical operations

conservation

the principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

formal operational stage

the fourth stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development (from 12 years on) in which a child begins to think logically about abstract concepts

abstract thought

understanding concepts that are real, but which are not directly tied to concrete physical objects and experiences

scaffolding

providing temporary supports as children step to higher levels of thinking

more-knowledgeable other [MKO]

someone, such as a teacher or parent, who has a better understanding or higher ability level than the learner

zone of proximal development [ZPD]

the gap between what a child can do independently and what a child cannot possibly do, where learning happens with the assistance of an MKO

stranger anxiety

fear of unfamiliar people, typically displayed by infants starting at about 8 months of age

attachment

an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation

contact comfort

positive emotions afforded by physical touch, particularly with something/someone warm and soft

critical period

a phase of development in which our minds are especially sensitive to certain experiences and receptive to learning new skills or behaviors

imprinting

the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

strange situation

a behavioral test developed by Mary Ainsworth that is used to determine a child's attachment style

secure attachment

an emotional tie with a caregiver that provides comfort and security for the child

insecure attachment

an emotional tie with a caregiver marked by ambivalence or or anxiety

temperament

a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

easy temperament

marked by regular and predictable behavior, willingness to approach new people or objects, fast adaptability, low emotional intensity, and positive mood

difficult temperament

marked by irregular or unpredictable behavior, tendency to withdraw from new people or objects, slow adaptability, high emotional intensity, and negative mood

slow-to-warm up temperament

marked by tendency to withdraw from new people or objects, slow adaptability, low emotional intensity, and slightly negative mood

basic trust

according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy

self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves; our answer to the question "who am I?"

self-esteem

how one feels about who they are

authoritarian parenting

style of parenting characterized by high demandingness and control, but low responsiveness and warmth

permissive parenting

style of parenting characterized by low demandingness and control, but high responsiveness and warmth

authoritative parenting

style of parenting characterized by high demandingness and control and high responsiveness and warmth

uninvolved parenting

style of parenting characterized by low demandingness and control and low responsiveness and warmth

gender

the socially constructed roles and characteristics by which a culture defines male and female

aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy

gender role

a set of expected behaviors for males or for females

role

a set of expectations about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

gender identity

our sense of being male or female

social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

gender typing

the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role

transgender

an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex

adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

"storm and stress"

G. Stanley Hall's phrase for the intense moodiness, emotional sensitivity, and risk-taking tendencies that characterize adolescence

moral reasoning

the cognitive process of determining right and wrong

preconventional morality

first level of Kohlberg's theory of moral development, in which moral reasoning focuses on self-interest

conventional morality

second level of Kohlberg's theory of moral development, in which moral reasoning focuses on social approval and social order

postconventional morality

third level of Kohlberg's theory of moral development, in which moral reasoning focuses on basic rights and universal principles

identity

our sense of self

social identity

the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships

Trust vs. Mistrust

the first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, in which an infant develops a sense of basic trust if their needs are dependably met

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

the second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, in which toddlers learn to exercise their will and do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities

Initiative vs. Guilt

the third stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, in which preschoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about their efforts to be independent

Competence vs. Inferiority

the fourth stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, in which children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior

Identity vs. Role Confusion

the fifth stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, in which teenagers work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are

Intimacy vs. Isolation

the sixth stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, in which young adults struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel socially isolated

Generativity vs. Stagnation

the seventh stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, in which middle age people discover a sense of contributing to the world, or they may feel a lack of purpose

Integrity vs. Despair

the eighth stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, in which an older adult, in reflecting on their life, may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure

emerging adulthood

for some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to mid-twenties, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood

X chromosome

the sex chromosome found in both men and women; females have two X chromosomes; males have one

Y chromosome

the sex chromosome found only in men; women have none, males have one

testosterone

the male sex hormone

primary sex characteristics

physical, sex-differentiated traits related to directly to sexual reproduction, such as ovaries, testes, and external genitalia

secondary sex characteristics

physical, sex-differentiated traits not related to sexual reproduction, such as female breasts, female hips, male voice quality, and male body hair

menarche

the first menstrual period

AIDS

acquired immunodeficiency syndrome; life-threatening, sexually-transmitted disease caused by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), that depletes the immune system and leaves the person vulnerable to infections

sexualization

the process of portraying a people as sexual objects

sexual orientation

an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation), the other sex (heterosexual orientation), or both sexes (bisexual orientation)

menopause

the time of natural cessation of menstruation

cross-sectional study

a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another

longitudinal study

research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period

biographical study

research in which a person is studied retrospectively, reconstructing a person's past through interviews and inferring the effects of past events on current behaviors

social clock

the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

five stages of grief/loss

denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance

Jean Piaget

cognitive psychologist; known for his theory of cognitive development as a series of stages

Lev Vygotsky

cognitive psychologist; known for his theory of cognitive development as a social and linguistic process