FilAm Psych Essay

AAs are neglected by helping professions

• Lack of mental health treatment.

• Perpetuation of mental health disparities.

• Mental Health Stigma + Inaccessibility + Lack of competent providers = underutilization of mental health services.

cultural competence

the ability to understand, respect, and effectively interact with people from cultures, beliefs, and backgrounds different from one’s own.

• Active Listening: Paying close attention to and understanding the perspectives of others. 

• Empathy: Trying to understand and share the feelings of individuals from different cultures. 

• Respect: Showing consideration and appreciation for diverse cultural values and practices. 

• Open-mindedness: Being receptive to new ideas and perspectives.  •

Curiosity: Asking questions and seeking to learn more about other cultures. 

• Humility: Recognizing that one's own cultural perspective is not the only valid one and being open to learning from others.

October 18,1857

the first Filipinos landed in Morro Bay

Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882

• First significant law restricting immigration based on nationality and race.

• Banned Chinese laborers from immigrating to U.S. for 10 years.

• Prohibited Chinese immigrants from becoming naturalized U.S. citizens.

1924 Immigration Act (Johnson Reed Act)

• Restricted immigration from Asian and Southern and Eastern Europe by establishing a national origins quota system.

• Created U.S. Border Patrol and established a consular control for visa issuance.

1965 Immigration Act (Hart-Celler Act)

• Abolished the national origins quota system. • Prioritized family reunification and skilled workers.

• Led to increase in immigration from Asian, Africa and Latin America.

• From Asian countries: China, Japan, Philippines, India, Korea

• Professionals: doctors, nurses, engineers

Asian American Generational Status

• 1st Generation: Asians who immigrated to the US in late adolescence or adulthood.

• 2nd Generation: are US-born and have foreign-born parents. •

1.5 Generation: foreign-born who arrive in the United States prior to age 13.

• 3rd Generation: grandparents immigrated to the US

. • 4th Generation: Asian Americans whose great-grandparents immigrated to the United States.

Immigration status

• Asian Americans comprise 13% of the 11 million undocumented people in the US

• Many overstayed visas.

• Others escape violence or persecution.

economic status

• Median household income of AA ($73,060) vs. US average (53,600).

• Asian Americans tend to have higher levels of family or household income because more people are contributing to the household income than there are with other racial groups (Reeves & Bennett, 2004)

• Bangladeshi, Hmong, Nepalese, and Burmese Americans have median household incomes that are lower than the US average, ranging from $36,000 to $49,800.

• Asian Indian, Filipino, Japanese, and Sri Lankan Americans are above the Asian average, with a range from $74,000 to $100,000 (López, Ruiz, & Patten, 2017)

AA Mental Health

• AAs continue t be overlooked in fields of psychology, education, and health.

• AAs utlize mental health services the least out of all racial groups (especially immigrants).

• cultural stigmas

• reluctance to seek out services

• patient suspiciousness

• different understanding of the manifestation of psychological problems (Sue et al., 2019)

Model Minority Myth → Invincibility

• based on census data, which reveals that Asian Americans attain higher educational statuses and have higher family or household incomes than the general US population

• that all Asian Americans are well-educated, successful, and law-abiding citizens in the United States

• members of society at large hold false perceptions that all Asian Americans are succeeding educationally – when such perceptions may not be true for all groups (Nadal & Sue, 2009

Hierarchy within AA

• East Asian Am viewed as top not the hierarchy educational attainment, lighter skin tone, advanced home countries)

• FilAm, SEA Americans viewed as bottom of the hierarchy (lower educational attainment, extremely poor home country, darker skin tones)

Filipino American Terminology: Complexities

• Pilipino: a political identifier, signifying the lack of the letter “F” in indigenous and non-Spanish-influenced Pilipino languages (Nadal, 2004; Revilla, 1997)

• Pinoy (pinay): first used among the earlier Filipino American immigrants on the West Coast in the early 1900s to describe other Filipinos (Guyotte & Posadas, 2012); a unifying term

• Filipinx” or “Pilipinx”: a gender-neutral way of identifying their ethnicity; may be viewed as unnecessary or inaccessible.

• Letters F and X are also not in the Alibata (pre-colonial Filipino alphabet)

Experiences of Filipino Americans

• FilAms are descendants of people from the Philippine Islands (7107 islands, 170 languages)

• Influenced by Spanish, American, Japanese, China, Pacific Islands, Portugal, Australia.

• Colonized by Spain for almost 400 years (freedom in 1898) • Colonized by U.S. for almost 50 years.

• Philippines is one of the only Asian countries to have English as its second national language, educational systems adopted American curricula.

Fil Am Immigration and History

• Wave 1 - 16th Century, First AAs in the U.S.

• Wave 2- Early 1900s; pensionados (sponsored students)

• Wave 3 - 1910-1940; laborers and nonsponsored students; US Navy

1920s-1940’s Anti Filipino Settlement

• Few women in the U.S., FilAm men searched outside their race for romantic relationships.

• Anti-miscegenation laws prevented people of different races from marrying (Guevarra, 2012; Takaki, 1998)

1906 Hawaii: Sakadas

• Local sugarcane plantation workers.

• Fil Am stereotypes: unintelligent, uncivilized, dogeaters.

Legislative acts allowed immigration from the Philippines

• Tyding-McDuffie Act of 1934

• •Philippine independence in 10 years

• Changed the citizenship status of Filipino Americans who were already residing in the US from “nationals” to “aliens” (Mabalon, 2013).

• Entry quota of 50 Filipinos per year (greater than other Asian countries)

• Walter-McCarran Immigration and Naturalization Act of 1952 repealed the Asian Exclusion Act of 1924.

• Allowed a token number of Asian to immigrate to the US with right of citizenship.

• Fil Ams and Asian Indians had a 100 quota each.

• The Immigration Act of 1965 completely repealed both the Asian Exclusion Act and the Walter McCarran

• Led to the 4th wave of Filipino immigrants (doctors, nurses, engineers)

• Post 1965 professionals settled on the West Coast and Hawaii, increased job market in East Coast, Midwest and South led to movement.

Undocumented immigrants challenges

• TNTs (tago ng tago, to keep on hiding”

• In 2018, approximately 370,000 undocumented Fil Ams in the U.S.

• May be educated or uneducated and have various immigration statuses, including those who enter the country with a legal visa and overstay their welcome or those who violate the terms of their visa.

• Many undocumented individuals work menial jobs (in which they are paid under the table), even though they may have higher levels of education in the Philippines or advanced skill sets.

Philippines Colonialism

Colonized for about 420 years.

• 370 years Spain

• 50 years America

• Impact of colonialism is seen and felt in every aspect. • Religion, education, culture, language, values, standards of beauty, mental health.

colonial mentality

a form of internalized oppression, in which the colonizer's values and beliefs are accepted by the colonized as beliefs and truths of their own; the colonized come to believe that the mores of the colonizer are superior to their own (David & Okazaki, 2006a; David, 2013).

Spanish colonization of the Philippines

Conversion to Catholicism and Christianity

• 81% of Filipinos today are Catholic (5-10%) are Christians

Philippine Independence Day

June 12, 1898

U.S. colonization 1899

• Political Reasons

• Philippines was used as a battleground during WW I and WW II.

• To expand its empire in competition with established European empires.

• Cultural Reasons

• Encouraged to change their native identities with American identities.

• Speak English

• Pledge allegiance to the US flag.

• America’s “little brown brothers”: it’s the responsibility of the American people to educate Filipinos.

Economics

• Spanish Manila-Acapulco galleons

• During American rule, Philippines exported.

•Sugar, abaca, copra, tobacco.

• With America’s exit in 1946, the Philippine economy declined.

Government

• Pre-colonial Philippines had their governing system.

• 1946: gained independence from the U.S.

• Post-colonial Philippines mimicked the U.S. government.

• 1960 Marcos attempted to rebuild the Nation

•1972 Marcos declared the Martial Law • At present, corruption and instability

Colonial mentality

includes an uncritical rejection of anything Filipino and an uncritical preference for anything American

Filipinos and Fil Ams are affected by colonial mentality

• colonial mentality to be negatively related to enculturation, personal self-esteem, and collective self-esteem (David & Okazaki, 2006b)

• positively correlated with depression (David, 2008; David & Okazaki, 2006b)

• colonial mentality is prevalent for Filipino American immigrants even before they enter the US

• that colonial mentality among Filipino American immigrants may be especially detrimental to one's mental health.

• when Filipina American women experience racism and sexism, they are significantly more likely to exhibit colonial mentality, particularly in the form of cultural inferiority (Felipe, 2016)

David and Okazaki’s Levels of Colonial mentality’s impact on individuals

• Denigration of oneself

  • When an individual adopts negative stereotypes about their own ethnic group and applies them to themselves.

  • Example: Believing you are less intelligent, less attractive, or less capable because of your ethnic identity.

• Denigration of one's culture

  • The devaluing or rejecting of one’s traditions, language, practices, and heritage because they are seen as “inferior” to the dominant culture.

  • Example: Feeling ashamed of speaking one’s native language or seeing cultural practices as “primitive.”

• Discrimination against those who are less acculturated

  • Looking down on or distancing oneself from members of the same ethnic group who retain stronger ties to traditional culture.

  • Example: Mocking someone from your own group for having an accent, traditional clothing, or cultural mannerisms.

• Tolerance and acceptance of contemporary oppression of one's ethnic group

  • Internalizing systemic racism to the point of excusing or justifying discrimination.

  • Example: Believing that your group deserves fewer opportunities or that racism is “just the way things are.”

David and Okazaki’s Colonial Mentality Scale

• measure ways individuals of colonized cultures have internalized colonialism in their worldviews, attitudes, and behaviors

• includes five subscales: 1. Within-group discrimination 2. Physical characteristics 3. Colonial debt 4. Cultural shame and embarrassment 5. Internalized cultural/ethnic inferiority

Within Group Discrimination

separating fobs and FilAms

being ashamed to be around Filipinos

Physical Characteristics

bridged noses is better than flat noses

light skin is better than dark

half white half Filipino is better than Full Filipino

Colonial Debt

Spain and United States are responsible for civilizing Filipinos and improving their ways of life

Filipinos should be thankful and grateful to be in the United States

should feel fortunate, privileged, and thankful

Cultural Shame and Embarrassment

being ashamed of Filipino culture and traditions

Being Filipino is a curse

Internalized Cultural/Ethnic Inferiority

Feeling ashamed of being Filipino

not as good as being white

The IMSCF Syndrome: Denial of Filipino ethnicity is common

I am Spanish Chinese Filipino Syndrome

Colonial mentality creates a hierarchy between FilAms and Filipinos

Hierarchy based on

• physical appearance

• educational levels

• religion

• language abilities

• region

Decolonization Framework

• the process of humanizing the dehumanized by promoting positive mental health and identity for persons of colonized backgrounds (Strobel, 2001).

• to reject colonial mentalities that have been passed on through generations of colonized peoples

Laenui’s Decolonization Model

1. Rediscover/recovery

2. Mourning

3. Dreaming

4. Commitment

5. Action

Decolonization requires community involvement

• Decolonization is not just an individual process for Filipino Americans but rather a process in which several members of the community need to be involved (Halagao, 2004b, 2010; Strobel, 2001)

. • Teaching the history of the Philippines prior to Spanish and American rule

• Emphasizing the positive traits of the precolonial culture.

• Working directly with parents to teach children about the negative impacts of colonialism.

• Providing positive Filipino and Filipino American role models can be helpful in decolonizing mindsets.

Discussion

In what ways has colonialism affected you and your everyday life personally and your perception of image or beauty?

In what ways has colonial mentality affected your community?

Race and ethnicity often are used interchangeably with Asian Americans

• many researchers and scholars neglect to notice the differences between various Asian ethnic groups (Alvarez & Yeh, 1999; Lee, 2002).

• when Filipino American individuals are asked about their “racial group,” it is unclear whether they think first about other Filipinos, other Asian ethnic groups (e.g., Chinese, Vietnamese, Thai), or both.

Race

• A “category of humankind that shares certain distinctive physical traits.” (MerriamWebster)

• A classification of humans based on a combination of various physical characteristics, including skin color, facial form, and eye shape.

• Race has many psychological consequences, including the ways in others respond to someone on the basis of visible racial characteristics as well as in the implications of such responses for one's life opportunities and sense of identity (Phinney, 1996).

• In the past, the US Department of Education has categorized Filipinos as Pacific Islanders (e.g., Horn, 1995). • Currently, the US Census categorizes Filipinos under the Asian racial umbrella.

Are Filipinos/Fil Ams Asians?

• because Filipinos have a darker skin color and a larger eye shape than East Asians (e.g., Chinese, Japanese, Koreans), they may not fit in the same racial category as Asians (Nadal, 2004, 2019).

• Filipinos often are mistaken for members of other racial/cultural groups, namely Latinos or Pacific Islanders, or multiracial individuals (Nadal, 2004; Nadal et al., 2012; Ocampo, 2014a, 2015; Rumbaut, 1995), which may lead to differential race based treatment for Filipinos than for other East Asian groups (Nadal et al., 2012).

Ethnicity

the membership in a particular national or cultural group and observance of that group's customs, beliefs, and language that are often transmitted across generations (Phinney, 1996).

Racial Identity

• the extent to which a person of color perceives him- or herself to share a common racial heritage with his or her respective socioracial group (Helms, 1995)

POCRIAS

• Conformity

  • Individuals devalue their own racial/ethnic group and idealize the dominant (White/Eurocentric) culture.

  • They may internalize stereotypes and seek acceptance from the dominant group.

  • Example: Preferring mainstream cultural norms while rejecting one’s own language, traditions, or features.

• Dissonance

  • A stage of conflict or questioning when individuals begin to notice racism and the limits of assimilation.

  • They feel tension between pride in their own group and the desire to fit into the dominant culture.

  • Example: Feeling torn between defending one’s culture and wanting to downplay it to avoid discrimination.

• Immersion

  • Individuals immerse themselves in their racial/ethnic identity and reject the dominant culture.

  • Strong pride in their group, often paired with anger or mistrust toward the dominant group.

  • Example: Actively embracing cultural traditions, history, and activism while criticizing assimilation.

• Internalization

  • A more balanced and secure stage of identity.

  • Individuals have pride in their racial/ethnic group while also being open to building coalitions across groups.

  • Example: Advocating for social justice, celebrating one’s culture, but also engaging respectfully with people of other backgrounds.

What of Asian racial identity development models?

Asian identity development models put emphasis on ethnic identity development and not racial identity development.

• While Asian identity models include how Asian American individuals feel about themselves, their ethnic group, other people of color, and Whites, they fail to recognize how Asian Americans self-identify with other racial group members of different Asian ethnic groups (Nadal, 2004).

• These identity models do not examine how Asian Americans are involved in racial practices (e.g., customs or behaviors across the pan-Asian racial category), how Asian Americans view their Asian racial group, or how Asian Americans have a cultural commitment to their racial group (Espiritu, 1992).

Brown Asians

The Asian subgroups that tend not to identify themselves as Asian include South Asians (e.g., Indians, Pakistanis, and Bangladeshis), Southeast Asians (e.g., Vietnamese, Cambodians, Laotians, Hmongs, and Thais), Filipino Americans, and Pacific Islanders (e.g., Native Hawaiians, Samoans, and Chamorros).

ethnic identity

one's membership in an ethnic group, with subcategories including self-identification, sense of belonging or commitment to an ethnic group, attitudes toward one's ethnic group, and ethnic involvement (Phinney, 1990).

• “Self-identification” refers to the ethnic label that one uses for oneself (i.e., whether one refers to oneself as Filipino, as American, or as Filipino American).

• “Sense of belonging” or “commitment” refers to the degree to which one feels connected or bonded to one's ethnic group (i.e., whether an individual feels a bond with other Filipino Americans).

• “Attitudes toward one's ethnic group” include both positive and negative beliefs or feelings individuals have about their ethnic group (i.e., whether a Filipino American holds positive or negative stereotypes about other Filipinos).

• “Ethnic involvement” includes social participation and cultural practices with one's ethnic group

Ethnic behaviors

• language (i.e., whether the individual speaks the same language as others in the ethnic group)

• friendship (i.e., whether the individual has friends of the same ethnic group);

• religious affiliation and participation (i.e., whether the individual belongs to the same religious organizations or practices similar religious behaviors as other ethnic group members);

• structured social ethnic groups (i.e., whether the individual is a member of ethnic-specific organizations); • political ideology and activity (i.e., whether the individual has similar political views as other ethnic group members);

• area of residence (i.e., whether the individual lives in an ethnic enclave or near other members of their same ethnicity);

• miscellaneous ethnic or cultural activities and attitudes (i.e., whether the individual listens to ethnicspecific music or participates in ethnic-specific celebrations)

Asian diaspora hierarchy

• brown Asians (e.g., Filipinos, Southeast Asians, and South Asians) often feel marginalized or discriminated against for not being “Asian enough” (Espiritu, 1992; Nadal, 2004; Okamura, 1998).

• Filipinos are often the targets of ethnic jokes within the Asian American community, with stereotypes of being inferior, criminal, or uncultured (Okamura, 1998).

• resentment often may occur between Filipinos and other Asians, particularly toward East Asian American groups (Espiritu, 1992; Nadal, 2004)

California Senate Bill 1813

• SB 1813 mandated that state surveys and statistical tabulations classify individuals of Filipino ancestry as "Filipino" instead of grouping them with broader categories like "Asian," "Pacific Islander," or "Hispanic".  • The bill contributed to the broader "Brown Asian American Movement," highlighting the unique experiences and needs of Filipino Americans compared to other Asian American groups.

Fil Am phenotype may lead to experiences similar to Black Americans and Latinx Americans

• Darker skin, larger eyes, curlier hair. • Filipino Americans are often criminalized by their teachers, by law enforcement, and by other authority figures – influencing their ability to achieve academically (Buenavista, 2010) • Filipino American students reported that their teachers and counselors treated them differently than their Chinese American peers – in that the Filipino American students were presumed to be gang members and uninterested in college, while the Chinese Americans were encouraged to do well academically (Teranishi, 2002)

Fil Am Experiences of Microaggressions by Nadal, Escobar, Prado, David, and Haynes (2012)

1. Alien in one’s own land

   • Assumption that POC are foreigner or foreign born. • 2nd gen are most negatively affected.

2. Second class citizen

   • Occurs “when a White person is given preferential treatment as a consumer over a person of color” (Sue et al., 2007, p. 276)

3. Invalidation of interethnic differences

   • Minimization or denial of differences that may exist between interethnic groups or the existence of other Asian American groups.

   • “All Asians look alike:”

4. Exoticization and sexualization of women and demasculinzation of men

   • a general sense that Filipina women were often viewed as sexual objects that could guarantee a “good time.”

5. Pathologizing of cultural values and behaviors

   • Dominant/White culture is ideal.

   • “Eating rice for breakfast is bizarre “

6. Invisibility and lack of knowledge of Filipino Americans

   • To be left out whener issues of race were discussed or acknowledged. • “Is Philippines a country?” • Lack of Filipino role models in media.

7. Assumption of Criminality or Deviance

   • Filipinos were viewed as “trouble makers” and they were consistently pulled over

8. Assumption of inferior status or intellect

   • Desperate Housewives

9. Use of Racist Language

   • Participants did not report any Filipino-specific ethnic slurs, but rather slurs that are usually used toward Asian Americans in general or specific Asian ethnic groups.

   • Chink, gook, rice paddy were said directly to them or around them.

10. Assumption of Filipino stereotypes

    • Asking Filipinos if they eat dog

    • “You people were raised so nicely”

11. Exclusion from the Asian American community

    • seperations of Asians

12. Assumption of universal Filipino experience

13. Mistaken Identity

    • Being mistakened as Latino

Filipino Americans and Racial Classifications

• US Census Bureau 2019: 3.5 M Fil AMs (3rd largest Asian American population)

• Largest AA population in California and Hawaii •

Fil Ams are the largest undocumented AA population. • 2/3 or Fil Am adule are foreign born.

• 25% of Fil Ams identify as multiracial (vs. 15% of general AA population) • Fil Ams have been placed into several racial and ethnic categories

• 2010: Asian American • 1995: Pacific Islander

• Can be Hispanic or Latino (1980s/1990s, 1 out of 8 Fi Am identify as Hispanic)

• 1988: California Senate Bill 1813 required that all California state personnel surveys or statistical tabulations classify persons of Filipino ancestry as “Filipino” rather than as Asian, Pacific Islander, or Hispanic

• Filipino Americans may have a different phenotype, they often are mistaken as belonging to different racial/ethnic groups, including Latinx, Pacific Islander, and Arab Americans. = impact self-identity of FilAms

Reflections

Why Filipino Americans may not be achieving as well (financially or educationally) as their East Asian American counterparts?

How experiences with race, differences in cultural values and histories, and issues concerning identity may impact mental health experiences?

Mental Health Experiences of Filipino Americans

• Filipino Americans (both immigrants and second-generation individuals)

• 27% of the community sample had a major depressive episode or clinical depression of varying severity—significantly higher than that of the general US population, which is usually reported at 10% to 20% (Tompar-Tiu & SustentoSeneriches, 1995)

• Colonial mentality is positively correlated with depression (David, 2008) and negatively correlated with self-esteem (David & Okazaki, 2006b).

• Racial/ethnic discrimination over a lifetime to be associated with increased levels of depressive symptoms (Mossakowski, 2003).

• Ethnic identity is a protective factor.

Fil Am Substance Use

• Filipino Americans (particularly youth) may have higher incidences of use than other East Asian American groups. •

Filipino Americans were the largest “abstainers” from alcohol among all Asian American groups; however, Filipino Americans drank for pathological reasons significantly more than any other group (Johnson, Schwitters, Wilson, Nagoshi, & McClearn, 1985)

• Filipino Americans may turn to substances as a primary form of coping (Paves, 2016)

Mental Health X Physical Health

• Filipino American men and women have a higher prevalence of hypertension and cardiovascular disease in comparison to White Americans and other Asian American subgroups and with comparable rates to Black and Latinx Americans (see Ea, Colbert, Turk, & Dickson, 2018 for a review).

• Given that chronic stress and faulty coping reactions to stress are likely causes of high blood pressure, one must wonder if psychological distress (and inability to cope with such stress) may lead to health problems for Filipino Americans.

• Research indicates that racism may be a cause for cardiovascular problems in people of color (see Dolezsar, McGrath, Herzig, & Miller, 2014). • Filipino Americans' perceptions of unfair treatment may be associated with increased physical illness (Gee et al., 2006)

Six Statuses of the Filipino American Identity Model

1. Ethnic Awareness

   Early recognition of family traditions, values, and language within the Filipino community.

   Identity is rooted in family and community experiences, often before exposure to dominant culture.

   Example: Learning Tagalog or regional dialects at home, celebrating Filipino customs.

2. Assimilation to Dominant culture

   A period of distancing from Filipino identity and trying to “fit in” with the mainstream (often White/Eurocentric) culture.

   May involve shame about Filipino heritage, avoiding cultural practices, or internalizing stereotypes.

   Example: Preferring English only, denying Filipino background, valuing “American” over “Filipino” norms.

3. Socio Political Awakening

   A stage of becoming aware of racism, discrimination, and inequality.

   Individuals begin questioning assimilation and recognize systemic barriers that affect Filipinos and other people of color.

   Example: Learning U.S. colonial history in the Philippines or experiencing racism firsthand.

4. Panethnic Asian American Consciousness

   Developing solidarity with other Asian American groups, seeing shared struggles and building alliances.

   Identity expands beyond being Filipino to recognizing connections across the Asian American experience.

   Example: Joining Asian American student organizations, participating in pan-Asian advocacy or activism.

5. Ethnocentric Consciousness

   Re-centering pride and focus on specifically Filipino heritage and experiences.

   Can involve rejecting pan-Asian identity and emphasizing unique Filipino culture, history, and community.

   Example: Advocating for recognition of Filipino history, highlighting differences from other Asian groups.

6. Introspection

   A more balanced, secure identity that integrates Filipino heritage with broader multicultural perspectives.

   Individuals value their Filipino identity while also engaging openly with diverse groups and social justice movements.

   Example: Someone who is proud of being Filipino but also works across racial/ethnic groups for equity.