Personality Exam 3 (FINAL)

Rutgers University-NB

*discrimination

responding differently in the presence of certain stimuli in some situations & not in others

• when some behavior is rewarded or punished in one situation & not in another

stimulus control

the process in which a person’s response is determined by particular stimuli

• will respond only when reinforcement will take place

prompts

antecendent events that help initiate responses

• directions, instructions, examples, models, etc.

discriminative stimulus

stimulus whose presence signals a person to respond b/c they have learned previously that its presence leads to reinforcing consequences

stimulus generalization

the process by which behavior that is reinforced in one situation is repeated in another even if not reinforced

• OPPOSITE of stimulus discrimination

is negative reinforcement a reward?

yes; it is the REMOVAL of a bad stimuli

Skinner’s downsides of punishment

• may give rise to emotional responses that are incompatible with appropriate behavior

• can create strong conflict in people when responses have inconsistent results

shaping

teaching a new behavior by reinforcing approximants

successive approximations

behaviors are increasingly similar to final goal

continuous reinforcement

reinforcer every time

intermittent reinforcement

reinforcer only some of the time

self-control process

how person acts to alter the conditions that influence their behavior

1. physical restraints

2. physical aids

3. changing stimulus conditions

4. manipulating emotional conditions

5. performing alternative responses

6. positive self-reinforcement

7. self-punishment

Skinner on Personality Development

• personality changes over time due to unique environmental schedules of reinforcement rather than the emergence of maturation stages

• no qualitative diff. between “normal” and “abnormal” people

• the same set of principles can account for all behavior

• focus should be more on the environmental determinants of behavior rather than inner ones

*Assessment techniques (Skinner)

?

behavior modification

attempt to change behavior by the application of learning principles derived (primarily) from reinforcement principles and (less often) by punishment principles

*Watson

• proponent of behaviorism

• Little Albert experiment - HIGHLY UNETHICAL

• behaviors, NOT states of consciousness

operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment

Law of effect (E.L. Thorndike)

principle that behavior is determined by its consequences

• in operant conditioning, principle that behavior becomes more likely when rewarded and less likely when punished

“Skinner Box”

designed to have rats press a lever for food

Functional analysis of behavior

identifying environmental conditions that determine if behavior occurs or does not

• states that behavior is caused by the operation of environmental factors

Skinner Criticisms

• research was only performed on lower animals

  • human environment cannot be so easily manipulated

• he sought to manipulate people w/o their awareness

• he set himself up as the arbitor of good & evil

• we aren’t robots — rewards & punishments do a lot, but we also still have free will

study of personality

involves the discovery of the unique set of relationships between the behavior of an organism & its reinforcing or punishing consequences

operant conditioning

establishment between behavior & its consequences

• the occurrence of behavior is made more / less likely

3-term contingency

refers to the 3 important components in an operant-conditioning contingency

what are the 3 terms of the 3-term contingency

1. the situational event in which a behavior occurs (i.e. the event that precedes the behavior)

2. the behavior itself

3. the consequences that follow the behavior

Bandura on “direct consequences”

helpful, but not absolutely necessary — you can learn by simply observing the experiences of others

behavior occurs as a result of…

complex interplay between inner processes (cognition and emotions) and environmental influences

**special ephasis placed on…

**cognitive determinants as result of actual cause of behavior

**Social Learning Theory

**the bridge between behaviorist and cognitive learning theories due to Bandura’s various stages

**Triadic Reciprocal Determinism

**theory that cognitions (thinking), behavior, & environmental influences all operate interactively as determinants of one another

i.e. our thoughts, feelings, and social environment all impact each other (bidirectionally?)

rude supermarket lady example

over time we use…

verbal and imaginal representations to guide our behavior & solve problems symbolically

eventually we can anticipate probably consequences of our behavior and adjust accordingly

Bandura believed behavior is regulated by…

expected outcomes

Bandura’s Disagreements with Skinner’s Ideas

(i.e. what Skinner believed that Bandura didn’t)

1. reward / punishment automatically weakens or strengthens our behavior

2. behavior results from our direct experiences of rewards & punishments

3. rewards / punishments fully account for the way behavior is learned, maintained, and altered

**Observational learning

**learning in which new responses are made as a result of watching the performance of others (imitative learning?)

Modeling

the process of observational learning — people learn new behavior while observing others

• form of indirect learning, in which behavior doesn’t actually occur

  • this is necessary to avoid trial and error

Factors in modeling

1. personality characteristics

2. prior experiences

3. characteristics of model

4. rewards and punishments associated with model

Vicarious reinforcement

willingness to imitate model’s behavior after observing that the model got rewarded

Social Learning Theory STEPS

1. attention

2. retention

3. reproduction

4. motivation

people learn from each other through observation, imitation, and modeling

people learn a variety of behaviors BUT…

actively decide which ones they decide to do based on their estimates of consequences

according to Bandura, punishment does NOT prevent…

immoral / illegal behaviors; these can surface later under certain circumstances

Bandura on media (tv, video games, etc.)

it’s HARMFUL; kids can learn violent behaviors through consumption of violent media

*even today, this is a point of debate!

Bandura’s media recommendations

1. create more constructive media

2. increase parental control / awareness / involvement

   • limit exposure

   • monitor content

   • model nonaggressive behavior

   • reward nonviolent behavior

Bandura’s famous experiment

Bobo doll experiment

self-efficacy lies @ the center of [who’s] theory [of what]?

Bandura’s; social cognitive theory

self-efficacy

one’s belief in one’s ability to succeed in specific situations / accomplish a task

• helps us develop confidence in ourselves

efficacy expectations

beliefs / convictions on the part of individuals that they can produce certain behaviors

• competent functioning requires both skills & judgements of self-efficacy

efficacy expectations are rooted in our personal experiences

1. mastery experiences (accomplishments)

2. vicarious experiences

3. verbal persuasion

   1. emotional & physiological states

self-efficacy affects:

1. career choice / job performance

2. mental & physical health

social-cognitive experiences affect [_] & [_] of behavior throughout the [_ _ _]

• development

• modifications

• personality development process

What kind of techniques did Bandura (and Skinner) use?

Experimental assessment techniques

Modeling as a therapeutic technique

• successful in autistic children

• used to reduce fears in children

• self-modeling

self-modeling

learning in which people watch videos of themselves performing appropriate behaviors and then demonstrating those behaviors later on

Name of Mary Ainsworth’s experiment

Strange Situation Experiment

Strange Situation findings

the way a child behaves during the separation & upon the return of their mother can reveal important info about attachment

Attachment Theory

attachment is an affectional tie an infant forms with their primary caregiver(s)

• proximity-seeking & signaling behaviors

Bowlby on attachment

• his theory was influenced by Freud

• attachment is an enduring emotional connection between human beings

• an infant’s behavior in relation to exploration, separation anxiety, stress, & fear of unfamiliarity can predict attachment style

Strange Situation — Episode 1

Mom & baby are introduced to the room

Strange Situation — Episode 2

Mother & baby are alone

Baby explores freely

Strange Situation — Episode 3

Stranger enters room, talks with mom, approaches baby, and tries to interact

Mom leaves after 3 minutes

Strange Situation — Episode 4 - First Separation

Stranger remains in room and interacts with baby when needed

Strange Situation — Episode 5 - First Reunion

Mom re-enters and greets baby in the doorway

Stranger exits

Strange Situation — Episode 6 - Second Separation

Mom leaves again

Baby is alone for 3 minutes

Strange Situation — Episode 7

Stranger re-enters & remains in the room, interacting with baby when needed

Strange Situation — Episode 8 - Second Reunion

Mom returns

Stranger leaves

during strange situation, infant’s behavior is scored on 5 types:

1. proximity-seeking

2. proximity-avoiding

3. contact-maintaining

4. contact-resisting

5. search behavior

there were also two other behavior types observed during the strange situation;

• exploratory (episodes 2-7)

• stranger anxiety (3, 4, 7)

Ainsworth’s 4 Attachment Styles

1. Secure attachment

2. Ambivalent attachment

3. Avoidant attachment

4. Disorganized attachment

Which attachment style is the WORST / most problematic?

Disorganized

Secure attachment

child:

• becomes visibly upset when caregivers leave

• are happy when they return

• seek comfort when they’re frightened

• readily accept comfort from parent

Ambivalent attachment

child:

• is suspicious of strangers

• upset or angry about parent’s departure

• does not readily accept affection upon parent’s return

  • might ignore them or even be aggressive

Avoidant attachment

child:

• avoids parent

• shows no preference for parent over stranger

• neither seeks nor avoids attention or contact from parent

disorganized attachment

child:

• shows a lack of clear attachment behavior

• a mix of actions & responses

  • might include avoidance and/or resistance

• sometimes appears dazed, confused, or apprehensive

factors contributing to attachment styles

• consistency

• responsiveness

• neglect & abuse

5 main areas of contemporary personality psych research

1. Biological contributions

2. Multicultural perspective

3. Big Five traits

4. Positive psychology

5. Personality differences through analysis of internet use

Behavioral genetics include…

1. Quantitative genetics

2. Molecular genetics

3. Evolutionary theory

Quantitative genetics

the study of individual variations in traits through procedures that allow for the assessment of the relative contributions of genetic & environmental factors

result of quantitative genetics

notion that environment affects the expression of genes

temperament

biologically based individual differences that influence children’s unique behavioral styles & the way in which they experience & react to the environment

temperament influences…

environmental interactions & eventually produce behavior

*Molecular genetics

*the study of genes at the molecular level regarding DNA variations that create differences physiologically that can affect personality functioning & ?????

Evolutionary theory

theory that seeks to understand the development of human behavior tendencies by focusing primarily on our animal heritage

Temperament shared with other primates

1. Emotionality

2. Fearfulness

3. Activity

4. Nurturance

5. Sociability

6. Impulsivity

7. Aggressiveness

8. Dominance

Interactional temperament model

essentially; temperament interacts with environment

**other things about temperament?????

• genetic component

• sex differences

**

evolutionary theorists believe there are biologically rooted sex differences in humans (& other primates):

• testosterone

• differential parental investment hypothesis

differential parental investment hypothesis

females are thought to make a greater investment in offspring because they endured a 9-month pregnancy whereas males can produce the same child with just a few minutes of investment

*area 2

*the need for a multicultural perspective on personality

cultural socialization processes largely affect

1. gender differences

2. racial / ethnic differences

3. religious differences

area 3

the use of the Big 5 traits

area 4

the role of Positive Psychology in promoting strengths & virtues in personality

*two main aspects of research focus

*strength of forgiveness & strength of self-control

area 5

increasing understanding of personality differences through analysis of internet use

*area 5 elements

*1. internals vs. externals

2. introverts & extroverts

3. neurotics vs. nonneurotics