Cartões: AP Psych - Unit 0 - Research Methods in Psychology

Psychology

the scientific study of mental processes and behavior

Confirmation bias

people tend to look for, interpret, or remember information in a way that confirms what they already believe

Hindsight bias

people believe that they knew something was going to happen after it has already occurred, even if they didn't actually predict it beforehand

Overconfidence

when people have too much faith in their own judgments or abilities

Empirical evidence

information that is obtained through observation, experimentation, or measurement

Hypothesis

a specific, testable prediction or educated guess about the relationship between variables or the outcome of a research study

Falsifiable

a statement that can be tested and potentially proven false through observation or experimentation

Peer Review

a process where research articles and studies are evaluated by experts in the field before they are published in academic journals

Replication

the process of repeating or reproducing a research study to determine if its findings can be consistently observed

Reliability

produces consistent results when administered repeatedly under similar conditions

Validity

the extent to which a research study or measurement tool accurately measures what it intends to measure

The American Psychological Association (APA)

is a leading professional organization dedicated to advancing the field of psychology and promoting the application of psychological knowledge to improve human welfare

Quantitative Data

numbers-based information gathered from surveys, tests, or experiments

Qualitative data

Information collected through methods like interviews or observations, focusing on people's experiences and behaviors

Likert Scales

a measurement tool used in surveys and questionnaires to assess people's attitudes, opinions, or perceptions

Structured Interviews

research method in which predetermined questions are asked to all participants in the same order

Survey Technique

research method in psychology used to collect data from a sample of individuals through self-report measures

Wording Effect

subtle changes in the phrasing or wording of survey questions can influence respondents' interpretations and responses

Social Desirability Bias

the tendency of individuals to respond in a manner that is viewed favorably by others or conforms to social norms, rather than providing honest or accurate answers

Naturalistic Observation

research method in psychology where researchers observe and record behavior in real-world settings without intervention or manipulation

Case Study

research method in psychology that involves an in-depth examination of a single individual, group, or phenomenon

Correlational Research

examine the relationship between two or more variables, but does not prove causation

Third Variable Problem

unmeasured variable may be influencing the relationship between the two variables of interest

Scatterplot

visual representation used in correlational research to display the relationship between two variables

Correlation Coefficient

statistical measure used in correlational research to quantify the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables

Positive Correlation

One variable tends to decrease as the other variable decreases, or one variable tends to increase when the other increases

Negative Correlation

as one variable increases, the other variable decreases

Experimental Method

research technique used to investigate cause-and-effect relationships between variables

Independent Variable

the variable that the researcher deliberately changes or manipulates in an experiment

Dependent Variable

the variable that is observed and measured for changes in an experiment

Confounding Variable

wasn't accounted for or controlled in the study but still affects the results

Operational Definitions

specifies how a researcher will measure and manipulate variables in a study

Experimental Group

exposed to the independent variable, which is the variable manipulated by the researcher to observe its effect on the dependent variable

Control Group

participants who were not exposed to the independent variable, providing a baseline for comparison

Random Assignment

assign participants to different groups in an experiment randomly

Placebo Effect

the phenomenon where individuals experience improvement in their condition solely because they believe they are receiving a beneficial treatment, rather than due to any active ingredient

Experimenter Bias

the researcher's expectations or beliefs about the outcome of a study influence the results

Single-Blind Study

participants are unaware of whether they belong to the experimental or control group, but the researchers conducting the study are aware of this information

Double-Blind Study

both the participants and the researchers conducting the study are unaware of who belongs to the experimental or control group

Placebo Condition

administering a fake treatment to one group of participants while the other group receives the actual treatment being tested

Sample

a subset of individuals or cases selected from a larger population for study

Representative Sample

a subset of individuals selected from a larger population in such a way that it accurately reflects the demographics, characteristics, and diversity of that population

Random Sample

each participant in the study has an equal opportunity to be included, which helps to minimize the influence of researcher bias and increase the generalizability of the findings to the population as a whole

Sample Bias

occurs when the sample is not representative of the larger population, leading to inaccurate or misleading results

Generalizability

the extent to which research findings obtained from a sample can be applied or generalized to a larger population

Statistics

a tool to turn data into information

Descriptive statistics

numerical measures used to summarize and describe the characteristics of a dataset

Inferential statistics

using data from a sample to make inferences or predictions about a larger population

Measures of Central Tendency

statistical tools used to describe the central or average value of a set of data

Mean

average

Median

the middle value of a data set

Mode

the most frequently occurring value in a data set

Range

the difference between the highest and lowest values in a data set

Normal Curve or Bell Curve

the majority of the data falls near the center, or mean, of the distribution, with progressively fewer values occurring further away from the mean in both directions

Regression to the Mean

extreme scores tend to get closer to the average when measured again

Positive Skew

the majority of the data clusters on the left side, with the tail extending towards the right, suggesting the presence of outliers or unusually high values

Negative Skew

the bulk of the data clusters on the right side, with the tail extending towards the left, suggesting the presence of outliers or exceptionally low values

Standard Deviation

a way to measure how spread out or close together numbers are in a group

Percentile Rank

a statistical measure that indicates the percentage of scores in a distribution that are equal to or below a particular value

Bimodal Distribution

type of data distribution in which there are two distinct peaks or high points on a histogram

Statistical Significance

the likelihood that observed results in a research study are not due to chance

Effect Sizes

indicates the strength of a relationship, suggesting whether or not the independent variable has a considerable impact on the dependent variable

Meta Analysis

the statistical analysis of multiple research studies on the same topic to draw overall conclusions

Institutional Review Boards (IRBs)

committees responsible for reviewing and approving research proposals to ensure that they meet ethical standards and protect the rights and welfare of research participants

Protect Participants from Harm

the obligation of researchers to minimize risks and ensure the well-being of research participants throughout the study process

Informed Consent

the process through which individuals voluntarily agree to participate in a research study after being provided with comprehensive information about the study's purpose, procedures, risks, benefits, and their rights as participants

Informed Assent

specifically applies to research involving children or individuals who may have limited decision-making capacity, such as those with cognitive impairments or developmental disabilities

Confidentiality

requires researchers to handle sensitive data and personal information obtained during the study with the utmost discretion and confidentiality

Deception

misleading participants about the true purpose or nature of the study, the procedures involved, or the expected outcomes

Confederates

individuals who are part of a research study but are actually working in collaboration with the researcher and are aware of the true purpose of the study

Debriefing

providing participants with comprehensive information about the true nature, purpose, and procedures of a research study immediately after their participation

The Scientific Method

a systematic approach used in psychology to study human behavior and mental processes

Behaviorism

The view that psychology should be an objective science that studies observable behavior without reference to mental processes.

Cognitive Perspective

The psychological viewpoint that focuses on how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information.

Humanistic Perspective

A holistic psychological perspective that emphasizes individual potential, self-growth, and the importance of free will.

Psychoanalytic Perspective

Developed by Freud, this view stresses the influence of unconscious forces and childhood experiences on behavior.

Biological Perspective

A way of looking at psychological issues by studying the physical basis for animal and human behavior, including genetics, the brain, and the nervous system.

Sociocultural Perspective

Focuses on how behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures.

Evolutionary Perspective

The study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.

Mental Processes

The internal, subjective experiences we infer from behavior, such as sensations, perceptions, dreams, thoughts, beliefs, and feelings.

Research Design

The overall strategy or blueprint used to carry out a research study, ensuring the data collected addresses the research question.

Methodology

The systematic, theoretical analysis of the methods applied to a field of study.