Human Anatomy Study Guide: Respiratory, Urinary, Digestive, and Reproductive Systems

What is Tidal Volume (TV)?

The amount of air inhaled or exhaled during normal breathing.

Define Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV).

The maximum amount of air that can be inhaled after a normal inhalation.

What is Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)?

The maximum amount of air that can be exhaled after a normal exhalation.

What is Residual Volume?

The amount of air remaining in the lungs after a forced exhalation.

Define Vital Capacity.

The total amount of air that can be exhaled after a maximum inhalation.

What is Dead Space Volume?

The volume of air that does not participate in gas exchange.

What is a mucosa and where can it be found?

A mucosa is a mucous membrane found lining various cavities and structures in the body, including the respiratory tract.

How is mucosa similar to skin?

Both mucosa and skin serve as protective barriers.

How is mucosa different from skin?

Mucosa is moist and secretes mucus, while skin is dry and has a protective outer layer.

What are conchae and what is their purpose?

Conchae are bony structures in the nasal cavity that increase surface area for air filtration, humidification, and warming.

Name the three regions of the pharynx.

Nasopharynx, Oropharynx, Laryngopharynx.

What is the role of the epiglottis?

The epiglottis prevents food and liquid from entering the trachea during swallowing.

What are the sites of gas exchange within the lungs?

Alveoli are the sites of gas exchange in the lungs.

What kind of epithelial tissue makes up the alveoli?

Simple squamous epithelium.

Contrast ventilation and pulmonary respiration.

Ventilation is the movement of air in and out of the lungs, while pulmonary respiration is the gas exchange between blood and alveoli.

Which process is moving air in and out of the lungs?

Ventilation.

Which process is the gas exchange between blood and alveoli?

Pulmonary respiration.

What happens to thoracic volume during inspiration?

Thoracic volume increases.

What happens to thoracic volume during expiration?

Thoracic volume decreases.

How does thoracic volume affect lung volume during inspiration?

Increased thoracic volume increases lung volume.

How does thoracic volume affect lung volume during expiration?

Decreased thoracic volume decreases lung volume.

What structure closes the entrance to the trachea during swallowing?

The epiglottis.

What structure has C-shaped cartilage rings?

The trachea.

What is the site of gas exchange in the lungs?

Alveoli.

What are the three layers of the kidney?

Cortex, Medulla, and Renal Pelvis.

What are renal pyramids?

Triangular structures in the renal medulla that contain the nephrons.

What are calyces?

Cup-like structures that collect urine from the renal pyramids.

What is the difference between ureters and urethra?

Ureters carry urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder, while the urethra carries urine from the urinary bladder to outside the body.

What artery enters the kidney at the renal hilum?

Renal artery.

What vessels carry blood to the glomerulus?

Afferent arterioles.

What is a nephron?

The functional unit of the kidney responsible for filtering blood and forming urine.

What are the two structures that make up the renal corpuscle?

Glomerulus and Bowman's capsule.

What is the purpose of the glomerulus?

To filter blood and form filtrate.

What is the purpose of the glomerular capsule?

To collect the filtrate from the glomerulus.

What is the purpose of the renal tubule?

To modify the filtrate through reabsorption and secretion.

What is the purpose of the collecting duct?

To concentrate urine and transport it to the renal pelvis.

Where does most water absorption occur in the nephron?

In the proximal convoluted tubule.

What hormone causes increased water absorption and thirst?

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH).

What are the two processes of urine formation?

Filtration and reabsorption.

Compare and contrast filtrate and urine.

Filtrate is the fluid that enters the nephron, while urine is the final product that is excreted.

What is glomerulonephritis?

An inflammation of the glomeruli in the kidneys.

What waste products can be measured in blood to assess kidney function?

Urea and creatinine, which come from the breakdown of proteins.

What nutrient breakdown produces waste products found in urine?

The breakdown of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.

What materials are typically found in healthy urine?

Healthy urine contains water, urea, creatinine, electrolytes, and other waste products.

What molecules or cells should NOT be found in healthy urine?

Healthy urine should not contain glucose, proteins, blood cells, or bacteria.

What condition can cause high sugar levels in urine?

Diabetes mellitus can cause high sugar levels in urine.

What conditions can lead to high protein levels in urine?

Conditions such as kidney disease, hypertension, and diabetes can lead to high protein levels in urine.

What conditions can lower the pH of urine?

Conditions such as metabolic acidosis or respiratory acidosis can lower urine pH.

What is the difference between a volatile acid and a non-volatile acid?

Volatile acids can be converted to gas and excreted by the lungs, while non-volatile acids are liquids and excreted by the urinary system.

Which type of acid is a gas at body temperature?

Volatile acid.

Which type of acid is a liquid?

Non-volatile acid.

What is an example of a volatile acid?

Carbonic acid.

What is an example of a non-volatile acid?

Lactic acid.

What are ketones?

Ketones are organic compounds produced from the breakdown of fatty acids.

From the breakdown of what nutrient are ketones formed?

Ketones are formed from the breakdown of fats.

Are ketones acids or bases?

Ketones are weak acids.

Why do diabetics experience ketoacidosis?

Diabetics experience ketoacidosis due to insufficient insulin, leading to increased fat breakdown and ketone production.

Why can ketosis result in weight loss?

Ketosis can result in weight loss because the body uses fat stores for energy instead of carbohydrates.

What is absorption in the digestive system?

Absorption is the process of taking nutrients from the digestive tract into the bloodstream.

What is chemical digestion?

Chemical digestion is the breakdown of food into simpler molecules by enzymes.

What is mechanical digestion?

Mechanical digestion is the physical breakdown of food into smaller pieces.

What is peristalsis?

Peristalsis is the wave-like muscle contractions that move food through the digestive tract.

What layer of the alimentary canal is most active in digestion and absorption?

The mucosa layer.

What layer of the alimentary canal contains blood vessels, nerves, and Peyer's patches?

The submucosa layer.

What layer contains the muscles of the alimentary canal?

The muscularis layer.

What layer is slippery and produces fluid in the alimentary canal?

The serosa layer.

Where does mechanical digestion begin?

Mechanical digestion begins in the mouth.

What nutrient does the mouth chemically digest?

The mouth chemically digests carbohydrates.

Does any absorption take place in the mouth?

Yes.

What type of tooth is responsible for cutting?

Incisors.

What type of tooth is responsible for tearing?

Canines.

What types of teeth are responsible for grinding?

Molars.

What organ is the primary site of mechanical digestion?

The stomach.

What types of movements are involved in mechanical digestion?

Churning and mixing movements.

Name the four regions of the stomach.

Cardia, fundus, body, and pylorus.

Where does the esophagus enter the stomach?

The cardia region.

What region of the stomach transitions to the small intestine?

The pylorus region.

What nutrient does the stomach chemically digest?

Proteins.

Does any absorption take place in the stomach?

No.

What organ is the primary site of chemical digestion and absorption?

The small intestine.

Name the three regions of the small intestine.

Duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.

Which region of the small intestine is primarily responsible for digestion?

Duodenum.

Which region of the small intestine is primarily responsible for absorption?

Jejunum.

Which region of the small intestine is primarily responsible for immune function?

Ileum.

Which region of the small intestine comes off the stomach?

Duodenum.

Which region of the small intestine receives enzymes from the pancreas?

Duodenum.

Does any mechanical digestion take place in the small intestine?

Yes.

What nutrients does the small intestine chemically digest?

Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.

What is the purpose of plicae, villi, and microvilli?

They increase the surface area for absorption in the small intestine.

Compare and contrast the small intestine and large intestine.

The small intestine has a smaller diameter but is longer and has villi; the large intestine has a larger diameter and is shorter.

Does any mechanical digestion take place in the large intestine?

No.

What is the primary nutrient/molecule the large intestine absorbs?

Water.

Where does the pancreas release its digestive enzymes?

Into the duodenum of the small intestine.

What organ makes bile?

The liver.

What organ stores bile?

The gallbladder.

Bile helps the body to absorb what nutrient?

Fats.

What is spermatogenesis?

The process of sperm cell development.

What are spermatogonia?

The precursor cells that develop into sperm.

What are sustentacular cells?

Cells that support and nourish developing sperm.

What is the tunica vaginalis?

A serous membrane covering the testes.