Honors Biology Midterm Review

Themes of Biology

Big ideas like evolution and how structures work.

Characteristics of Life

Traits of living things like growth and metabolism.

Scientific Method

Steps like observing and testing to find answers.

Scientific Units

Standard measurements used for consistent data.

Matter

Anything that has mass and takes up space.

Elements

Pure substances that cannot be broken down.

Acids

Liquids with high H^{+} levels; usually taste sour.

Bases

Liquids with low H^{+} levels; usually taste bitter.

Covalent Bonding

When atoms share pairs of electrons.

Ionic Bonding

Bond formed when atoms trade electrons.

Properties of Water

Sticks to itself, stays cool, and dissolves things.

Carbohydrates

Sugar molecules used for quick energy.

Proteins

Molecules made of amino acids that do cell work.

Lipids

Fats used for long-term energy storage.

Nucleic Acids

Genetic info carriers like DNA and RNA.

Cell Theory

Idea that all living things are made of cells.

Eukaryotic Cells

Complex cells that have a nucleus.

Prokaryotic Cells

Simple cells that lack a nucleus.

Diffusion

Molecules moving from high to low concentration.

Osmosis

Water moving through a cell membrane.( high to low conc)

Active Transport

Moving stuff using energy (ATP) against a gradient.

Chloroplasts

Organelles in plants that perform photosynthesis.

Electron Transport Chain

Protein series that helps produce ATP energy.

Chemiosmosis

Using a proton gradient to generate ATP.

Calvin Cycle

Turning CO_{2} into sugar (glucose).

Glycolysis

Breaking down sugar to release energy.

Lactic Acid Fermentation

Making energy without oxygen; causes muscle burn.

Alcoholic Fermentation

Yeast making energy and alcohol without oxygen.

Aerobic Respiration

Making cell energy using oxygen.

Anaerobic Respiration

Making cell energy without using oxygen.

ATP Production

Creating the cell's main energy currency.

Diploid

Cells with two full sets of chromosomes.

Haploid

Cells with only one set of chromosomes (gametes).

Mitosis

Cell division that makes two identical cells.

Meiosis

Cell division that makes four different sex cells.

Spermatogenesis

The process of making sperm cells.

Oogenesis

The process of making egg cells.

Mendelian Genetics

The study of how traits are inherited.

Dominant Traits

Strong genes that show up even with one copy.

Recessive Traits

Weak genes that show only if there are two copies.

Codominance

When two different traits both show up at once.

Genotype

The actual genetic code an organism has.

Phenotype

The physical look or traits you can see.

Heterozygous

Having two different genes for a trait (Aa).

Homozygous

Having two identical genes for a trait (AA or aa).

Structure of DNA

A double helix made of sugars and bases.

Complementary Base Pairs

Bases that match: A with T, and G with C.

DNA Replication

Copying DNA before a cell divides.

Structure of RNA

A single-stranded genetic messenger.

Three Types of RNA

mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA; they help build proteins.

Transcription

Copying a DNA recipe into an RNA strand.

Protein Synthesis

The cell process of building new proteins.

Sex-Linked Characteristics

Traits found on the X or Y chromosomes.

Crossing Over

Chromosomes swapping parts to mix up genes.

Mutations

Random changes or mistakes in the DNA code.

Pedigrees

Family tree charts used to track genetic traits.

Nondisjunction

Failure of chromosomes to separate properly.

Restriction Enzymes

Proteins that act like scissors to cut DNA.

Sticky Ends

Overhanging DNA bits left after a cut.

Plasmids

Tiny circles of DNA used in bacteria.

Recombinant DNA

DNA made by combining genes from different species.

Human Genome Project

The mission to map every single human gene.

Genetic Engineering

Directly changing an organism's DNA in a lab.

Spontaneous Generation

The disproven idea that life pops out of nothing.

Redi's Experiment

Proved that maggots come from flies, not meat.

Spallanzani's Experiment

Showed that microbes come from the air.

Radioactive Dating

Finding the age of fossils using isotopes.

Half-Lives

Time for half of a radioactive sample to decay.

Pasteur's Experiment

Used curved flasks to finally disprove spontaneous generation.

Miller & Urey's Experiment

Showed building blocks of life could form on early Earth.

Thomas Cech and Ribozyme

Found that RNA can act as an enzyme.

Microspheres and Coacervates

Simple cell-like bubbles from early Earth.

Endosymbiosis

Theory that organelles were once independent bacteria.

Chemosynthesis

Making food using chemicals instead of light.

Photosynthesis

Making food using sunlight.

Law of Superposition

Oldest rock layers are at the bottom.

Relative Age

Age of a fossil compared to others.

Absolute Age

The exact age of a fossil in years.

Lamarck's Theories

False idea that traits gained in life pass to kids.

Darwin's Theory of Evolution

Evolution through natural selection.

HMS Beagle

The ship Darwin used for his research.

Galapagos Islands

Islands where Darwin studied unique species.

Fitness

Ability to survive and have offspring.

Homologous Structures

Same internal build but different uses.

Analogous Structures

Different build but same use.

Vestigial Structures

Useless body parts left over from ancestors.

Coevolution

Two species evolving in response to each other.

Convergent Evolution

Unrelated species becoming more similar.

Divergent Evolution

Related species becoming more different.

Taxonomy

Science of naming and grouping organisms.

Linnaeus

The scientist who created modern taxonomy.

Aristotle

Ancient philosopher who first classified life.

Binomial Nomenclature

Two-part naming system (Genus species).

Levels of Classification

Ranks from Domain down to Species.

Phylogenetic Trees

Diagrams showing how species are related.

Cladograms

Charts showing shared evolutionary traits.

Three Domains

The three biggest groups of life: Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya.

Six Kingdoms

Main categories like Animals, Plants, and Fungi.

Dichotomous Keys

Tools for identifying species using paired questions.

Invertebrates

Animals that do not have a backbone.