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Psychology
The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
Goals of Psychological Research
To describe, explain, predict, and change behavior.
Scientific Method Steps
A systematic process for investigating phenomena, including forming hypotheses, conducting experiments, and drawing conclusions.
Predictive Hypotheses
Hypotheses that forecast a relationship between variables.
Causal Hypotheses
Hypotheses that imply a cause-and-effect relationship between variables.
Research Methods
Observational, survey, correlational, and experimental methods each have distinct advantages and disadvantages for drawing conclusions about behavior.
Ethical Principles in Psychology
Guidelines that ensure the safety, dignity, and welfare of research participants.
Modern Perspectives of Psychology
Includes behavioral, cognitive, humanistic, psychodynamic, biological, evolutionary, and sociocultural perspectives.
Training of a Psychologist
Involves education in psychology, including various specialty areas such as clinical, counseling, and school psychology.
Neuron Structure
Includes the axon, dendrites, and synapse.
Action Potential
A brief electrical charge that travels down the axon and across the synapse, triggering neurotransmitter release.
Excitation at the Synapse
Excitatory neurotransmitters increase the likelihood of neuron firing.
Inhibition at the Synapse
Inhibitory neurotransmitters decrease the likelihood of neuron firing.
Major Neurotransmitters
Dopamine (mood, movement), serotonin (mood), acetylcholine (muscle movement), and others.
Hindbrain
Located at the lower back of the brain, responsible for basic life functions.
Midbrain
Located above the hindbrain, involved in vision and hearing.
Forebrain
Located at the front of the brain, responsible for complex behaviors and mental processes.
Learning
A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience.
Orienting Reflexes
Automatic responses to novel stimuli.
Habituation
A decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations.
Dishabituation
The restoration of a response to a stimulus after a change in stimulation.
Classical Conditioning
A learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired.
Factors Affecting Classical Conditioning
Timing, frequency, and intensity of the stimuli.
Removal of Classically Conditioned Responses
Involves extinction, where the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus.
Thorndike's Law of Effect
Behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, while behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.
B. F. Skinner's Contributions
Developed the theory of operant conditioning and introduced reinforcement and punishment concepts.
Phases of Operant Conditioning
Includes acquisition, extinction, and spontaneous recovery.
Factors Affecting Operant Conditioning
Includes schedules of reinforcement, which determine how often a behavior is reinforced.
Observational Learning
Learning that occurs through observing the behavior of others.
Cognition in Observational Learning
Cognition plays a role in understanding and imitating observed behaviors.
Functions of Memory
Involves encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.
Implicit Memory
Unconscious memory, such as skills and conditioned responses.
Explicit Memory
Conscious memory of facts and events.
Three-Stage Model of Memory
Includes sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
Types of Amnesia
Includes retrograde amnesia (loss of past memories) and anterograde amnesia (inability to form new memories).
Retrieval Processes in Memory
Involves recalling or recognizing information stored in memory.
Improving Memory
Practical measures include mnemonic devices, rehearsal, and organization of information.
Knowledge Representation
The way information is structured and stored in memory.
Problem Solving
The process of finding solutions to difficult or complex issues.
Obstacles to Problem Solving
Includes mental set, functional fixedness, and confirmation bias.
Deductive Reasoning
Reasoning from general principles to specific cases.
Inductive Reasoning
Reasoning from specific cases to general principles.
Factors Affecting Decision Making
Includes biases, heuristics, and emotional influences.
Judgment and Heuristics
Mental shortcuts that simplify decision making.
Language Acquisition
The process by which children learn to understand and speak their native language.
Linguistic Relativity
The hypothesis that the structure of a language affects its speakers' worldview.
Measuring Intelligence
Historical and modern attempts include IQ tests and various assessments of cognitive abilities.
Hindbrain
Brainstem, cerebellum; controls vital functions and movement.
Midbrain
Sensory processing, movement.
Forebrain
Cerebral cortex; higher cognitive functions.
Endocrine system
It uses hormones to regulate various bodily functions through glands like the pituitary, thyroid, adrenal glands, and pancreas.
Orienting Reflex
Automatic response to a stimulus.
Habituation
Decreased response to repeated stimuli.
Dishabituation
Return of a response due to a change in stimulus.
Pavlov's studies of classical conditioning
Learning occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus, resulting in a conditioned response.
Classically conditioned responses removal
Through extinction, where the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus.
Thorndike's Law of Effect
Behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated.
B.F. Skinner's contributions to operant conditioning
Developed the concept of reinforcement and punishment in shaping behavior.
Phases of operant conditioning
Acquisition, Extinction, Reinforcement, and Punishment.
Factors affecting operant conditioning
Schedules of reinforcement, the type of reinforcement (positive vs. negative), and timing.
Observational learning
Learning by observing others, with cognitive factors like attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation.
Functions of memory
Encoding, storing, and retrieving information.
Implicit memory
Unconscious memory (e.g., skills).
Explicit memory
Conscious memory (e.g., facts, events).
Three-stage model of memory
Sensory Memory: Brief storage of sensory information; Short-Term Memory: Limited capacity, about 20-30 seconds; Long-Term Memory: Unlimited capacity, long duration.
Types of amnesia
Retrograde: Inability to recall past memories; Anterograde: Inability to form new memories.
Retrieval processes in memory
Recall: Bringing information from memory; Recognition: Identifying information; Retrieval Cues: External hints to trigger memory recall.
Improving memory
Practice retrieval, use mnemonic devices, chunk information, get enough sleep, and engage in active learning techniques.
Knowledge representation in memory
Through schemas, concepts, and mental images.
Types of problems
Well-defined problems: Clear goals, specific solutions; Ill-defined problems: Ambiguous goals, solutions.
Obstacles to problem solving
Functional fixedness, confirmation bias, mental set.
Deductive reasoning
General to specific conclusions.
Inductive reasoning
Specific to general conclusions.
Factors affecting decision-making
Cognitive biases, emotions, framing effects, and heuristics.
Heuristics
They are mental shortcuts that often lead to biased or faulty judgments.
Language acquisition
Through exposure, imitation, reinforcement, and the innate ability to learn language (Nativist Theory).
Linguistic relativity
The idea that language shapes the way we think.
Historical and modern attempts to measure intelligence
Spearman's g-factor: General intelligence; Gardner's Multiple Intelligences: Different types of intelligences (e.g., linguistic, logical-mathematical); Sternberg's Triarchic Theory: Analytical, creative, and practical intelligence.
