cumulative exam

all chapters

Explain how anatomy differs from physiology.

anatomy: study of structure

physiology: study of function of those structures

Define anatomy and compare and contrast its subdisciplines.

microscopic anatomy: examines structures that cannot be viewed by the human eye

macroscopic (gross) anatomy: investigates structure and relationship of large body parts that are visible to the eye

• comparative: examines similarities and differences in the anatomy of different species

• developmental: investigates the changes in structure within an individual from conception to maturity

• embryology: specifically studies developmental changes occuring prior to birth

• regional: examines al structures in a particular region of the body as one complete unit

• surface: examines both superficial markings and internal body structures as they relate to the skin covering them

• systemic: studies gross anatomy of each system in the body

Identify the major levels of organization in the human body.

chemical, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organismal

Identify the 11 organ systems of the body and their major organs.

• integumentary

• skeletal

• muscular

• nervous

• endocrine

• cardiovascular

• lymphatic

• respiratory

• digestive

• urinary

• reproductive

Demonstrate anatomical position and explain its significance.

facing forward, palms facing anteriorly, thumbs away from the body

it is the universal position so all observers have a common point of reference when describing the regiosn

Use correct terminology to define the three common anatomic planes

midsagittal: splits the body into right and left halves

coronal/frontal: splits the body into anterior and posterior regions

transverse/horizontal: splits the body into superior and inferior regions

anterior/posterior

in front of

in back of

dorsal/ventral

toward the back side

toward the belly side

superior/inferior

closer to the head

closer to the feet

cranial/caudal

at the head end

at the rear or tail end

rostral

toward the nose or mouth

medial/lateral

toward the midline

away from the midline

ipsilateral/contralateral

on the same side

on the opposite site

deep/superficial

on the inside;internal to another structure

on the outside;external to another structure

proximal/distal

closest to point of attachment

furthest from point of attachment

Define, list, and identify an animal cell’s generalized parts.

cell membrane

cytoplasm

cytosol

nucleus

nucleolus

nuclear envelope

nuclear pores

mitochondria

ribosomes

rough ER

smooth ER

golgi apparatus

lysosomes

peroxisomes

centrosomes

centrioles

cilia

Explain the structure and molecular organization of the plasma membrane.

phospholipid bilayer containing:

• cholesterol

• proteins (integral and peripheral)

• some carbohydrates

• glycolipid

• phospholipid

Describe the phases in the cell cycle.

Interphase:

G1: growth and preparation for DNA replication

S phase: DNA replication

G2: growth and preparation for division of DNA

Mitotic phase:

prophase: chromosomes appear, nucleolus breaks down, spindle fibers begin to form

metaphase: chromosomes align and spindle fibers attach

anaphase: chromatids are pulled apart by spindle fibers

telophase: new nuclear envelope forms and nucleolus reforms within each nucleus

Describe the effect of aging on cells.

cells decreased ability to maintain homeostasis

cancers appear with greater frequency in older individuals

• due to cells that undergo uncontrolled cell division and fail to turn off the cell division process

Define a tissue.

groups of similar cells that carry out a specific function

Classify the tissues of the body into four major types.

epithelial - lines every body surface and all body cavities, external and internal linings of many organs

muscle - throughout the body

nervous - brain, spinal cord, and nerves throughout the body

connective - all throughout the body

Explain the characteristics of epithelial tissue in general.

composed almost entirely of cells

has a apical surface and a basal surface

attachment to a basement membrane

lacks blood vessels

innervation

high regeneration capacity

Explain the functions of epithelial tissue in general.

physical protection

selective permeability

secretion

sensation

covers surfaces; lines insides of organs and body cavities

Classify exocrine glands and endocrine glands.

exocrine: sweat, saliva, digestive enzymes, mucus through ducts

endocrine: release hormones directly into bloodstream with no ducts

• pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, ovaries, testes

Explain the characteristics of connective tissue.

diverse, widely distributed

the “glue” that binds structures together

large, extracellular matrix

varying vascularity

Explain the functions of connective tissue.

physical protection

support and structural framework

binding of structures

storage

transport

immune protection

Describe general muscle characteristics.

contractile

can be voluntary or involuntary

receives input from the nervous or endocrine systems

Explain the structure and function of nervous tissue

neurons: controls activities, processes information; excitable, high metabolic rate, extreme longevity, nonmitotic

glial cells: supports and protects neurons, involved in signaling; nonexciteable, mitotic

signal transmission

sensation

integration

control and coordination

higher cognitive function

Explain the functions of cartilage.

supports tissues

provides gliding surface at articulations

provides a model for the formation of most bones “rough draft” of bones

Describe the function and distribution of hyaline, fibrocartilage, and elastic cartilage.

hyaline cartilage: c shaped rings in the trachea support connective tissue and musculature of the tracheal wall

fibrocartilage: provides toughness and flexibility to the pubic symphysis and intervertebral discs

elastic cartilage: supports the fleshy, external part of ear (auricle)

Explain the functions of bone.

supports and protection: provides structural support, serves as a framework for the entire body, protects many major organs (heart and lungs, brain, spinal cord)

movement: bones serve as attachment site for skeletal muscles

hematopoiesis: process of production of formed elements in the blood from red bone marrow

storage of mineral and energy reserves: calcium and phosphate are stored within and released by bone connective tissue; potential energy in the form of lipids is stored in yellow bone marrow

Identify the characteristics of long, short, flat, and irregular bones. Give examples of bones in each category.

long: greater length than width: arm, forearm, femur, toes, fingers

short: length nearly equal to their width: patella, carpals, tarsals

flat: flat, thin surfaces: roof of the skull, shoulder blades, sternum, ribs

irregular: elaborate, complex shapes: vertebrae, hip bones, ethmoid and sphenoid bones

Describe and label the gross anatomy of a long bone.

diaphysis - shaft

epiphysis - bulb at each end of the bone

• proximal

• distal

metaphysis - part where the bone widens before epiphysis

articular cartilage - covering epiphysis at joint surface

marrow cavity - hollow space within the diaphysis

endosteum - covers all internal surfaces of the bone

periosteum - covers outer surface of bone except for articular cartilage

Compare the microscopic anatomy of compact and spongy bone.

compact: relatively dense

• osteon:

• central canal: lies in the center of osteon

• concentric lamellae: rings of bone connective tissue that surround the central canal

• osteocytes: houses in lacunae

• canalculi: tiny channels through bone connective tissue

spongy: porous, like a sponge

• no osteons

• trabeculae of spongy bone are composed of parallel lamellae

List components of the axial skeleton.

80 bones of axial skeleton: skull, vertebral column, thoracic cage

List and explain the fine unique properties of muscle tissue.

excitability - respond to stimulus

conductivity - involves electrical charge that travels along the plasma membrane during a muscle or nerve impulse

contractility- muscle cell shortens

elasticity - ability of the muscle to return to its original length following shortening or lengthening of the muscle

extensibility- lengthening of a muscle cell

Identify the many roles of skeletal muscle in the body.

moves the body: bones move when muscles contract and pull on the tendons that attach the muscles to the bones

maintains posture

protects and supports

regulate elimination of materials

produce heat

Describe the levels of organization in a skeletal muscle.

each skeletal muscle is composed of fascicles (bundles of muscle fibers)

muscle fibers contain structures called myofibrils which are composed of myofilaments

Explain how muscles are attached to other body structures.

muscles are primarily attached to bone cartilage and skin by strong, fibrous, connective tissues called tendons

Describe the similarities and differences among the three types of muscle tissue.

skeletal: voluntary control, attached to bones

cardiac: involuntary control, only found in the heart

smooth: found in walls of organs and blood vessels, lacks striations, responsible for involuntary movements like digestion

Explain how muscles are named.

muscle action

specific body regions

muscle attachments

orientation of muscle fibers

muscle shape and size

muscle heads/proximal tendons

Identify organs of the CNS and PNS.

CNS: brain and spinal cord

PNS: cranial and spinal nerves, ganglia

Identify and describe each type of neuron.

motor: multipolar, conduct nerve impulses from CNS to muscles or glands

sensory: unipolar, conducts nerve impulses from body to CNS, some in eyes are bipolar

interneurons: in between neurons, only in CNS

Identify and describe the six types neuroglial cells.

CNS:

astrocyte: star, helps form blood brain barrier

ependymal: cuboidal, lines ventricles of brain and central canal

microglial: small, defends against pathogens

oligodendrocyte: rounded cell, myelinates and insulates CNS axons

PNS:

satellite cell: flattened cell, protects and regulates nutrients for cell bodies in gangllia

neurolemmocyte: myelinates and insulates PNS axons

Identify and describe the composition and function of a myelin sheath.

myelin consists of the plasma membranes of these glial cells and contain a large proportion of fats and lesser amount of proteins

speeds up nerve impulses

CNS:

formed by oligodendrocytes

PNS:

formed by neurolemmocytes

Explain how nerves are classified structurally and functionally.

structurally: based on their direction of signal transmission

• sensory neurons : to the CNS

• motor neurons: to the muscles and glands

functionally: based on roles in sensory output, integration, and motor output

• somatic nervous system: voluntary movements and sensory perception (external)

• autonomic nervous system: regulates involuntary bodily functions (heart rate, digestion, breathing)

Compare and describe the organization of gray and white matter in the brain.

gray matter: rich in neuron cell bodies, forms the cortex (outer layer) and deeper nuclei

white matter: composed of myelinated axons, lies beneath cortex, connecting different brain regions

Describe the characteristics of the cranial meninges.

inner to outer

pia mater: tightly adheres to brain, thin layer areolar connective tissue

arachnoid mater: external to the pia mater, partially composed of arachnoid trabeculae, immediately deep is the subarachnoid space

subdural space: potential space

dura mater: external to arachnoid mater, strongest of the meninges

• two layers: periosteal and meningeal

• periosteal is outermost, forms periosteum

Identify and describe the origin, function, and pattern of cerebral spinal fluid circulation.

formed by choroid plexus in each ventricle, formed from blood plasma

CSF circulates in the brains ventricles and subarachnoid space

• eventually reabsorbed in the bloodstream

protects, provides buoyancy, environmental stability

Describe the structure of the blood-brain barrier.

highly selective semipermeable border of tightly packed endothelial cells, surrounded by basal lamina and astrocytic perivascular feet

Describe the structure of the spinal cord.

cervical part: superiormost region, continuous with medulla oblongata, contains motor neurons

thoracic part: inferior to cervical part, contains neurons for thoracic spinal nerves

lumbar: shorter segment of spinal cord, contains neurons for lumbar spinal nerves

sacral: inferior to lumbar part

coccygeal part: inferior tip of the spinal cord

Describe the layers of the meninges and their clinical applications.

outer to inner:

vertebra, epidural space, dura mater, subdural space, arachnoid mater, subarachnoid space, and pia mater

Describe the types of tactile receptors and their functions.

unencapsulated:

free nerve endings: deep epidermis, detects temp, pain, light touch, and pressure

root hair plexus: surround hair follicles, detects movement of hair

tactile disc: flattened endings of sensory neurons, detects light touch

encapsulated:

end bulb: dermis, detects light pressure

lamellated corpuscle: dermis, coarse touch, detects deep pressure

bulbous corpuscle: dermis, detects continuous deep pressure and skin distortion

tactile corpuscle: dermal papillae, detects discriminative touch to determine textures and shapes