OCC2020 Class Test A Definition

Week 1 - Week 4

Evidence-based care

Care that is based on EBP, supported by scientific evidence, clinical expertise and client values 

Evidence-based practice

A practice that is supported by scientific evidence, clinical expertise and client values. The conscientious, explicit and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients

Knowledge

An accepted body of facts or ideas that is acquired through the use of the senses, reasons or through research methods

Retrospective longitudinal cohort design

A type of study conducted over a long period, looking at a group of people in the past

Research

Focused systematic enquiry aimed at generating new knowledge

Advanced search

Setting specific parameters for results (year/author/title/study type)

Boolean operators

AND, OR, NOT: used to expand or exclude keywords in a search (provides more focus)

Search string

List of words or phrases, when combined are used to search for a specific piece of information in database)

Primary research

An original piece of research from a single study

Secondary research

Research that has examined multiple primary research papers (summarised)

Truncation

A searching technique used when searching databases in which a word ending is replaced by

a symbol — an asterisk (*), a question mark (?) or a dollar sign ($) — to enable the search to include

all possible endings of the word.

Wildcards

 A searching technique used when searching databases in which a letter in a word is replaced

by a symbol — an asterisk (*), a question mark (?) or a dollar sign ($) — to enable the search to

include alternate spellings of the word.

Clinical significance

The relevance or importance of the results/findings to real-life practice 

Grey literature

Information published by organisations other than commercial publishers, such as government reports, company brochures, conference papers, policy statements and academics theses and dissertations

Heard immunity

Indirect protection from infection due to a high level of immunity in the community

Homogeneity

The comparability of results of one study with that of another 

Meta-analysis

Statistical procedure for combining results from existing quantitative studies with measured outcomes, effectively increasing sample size and precision 

Meta-synthesis

Synthesis of a number of qualitative studies examining the same phenomenon 

Peer review

Evaluation of a paper by experts in that field, usually done blind where the reviewer does not know who has written the paper to avoid bias

Primary paper

An article written by researchers who carried out the study it describes, it is new research with the original findings also known as original research or empirical research

Publication bias

When published research is not representative of all completed studies in that area, leading to false conclusions as to the entire body of evidence, this is often skewed towards positive results

Secondary paper

A paper that reviews several original/primary papers written by other people, no new research is carried out by these authors

Statistical significance

The likelihood that a result is produced by more than chance, usually accepted to be expressed through a p-value of less than 0.05 (e.g. more than 95% probability that the effect resulted from the intervention)

Anonymity

A person’s information is anonymous, if the information cannot identify the person. Name, date of birth or address has been removed.

Autonomy

Freedom to determine one’s own actions

Beneificance

Acting to benefit humankind

Confidentiality

Maintenance of privileged information

Declaration of Helsinki

First historical document outlining ethical principles to govern research, first agreed to in 1964

HREC

Human Research Ethics Committee

Justice

 Obligation to treat fairly

NHMRC

(National Health and Medical Research Council) the peak funding and policy-making body for medical research in Australia

Non-maleficence

Avoiding or minimising harm

Privacy

The person’s right to choose and control what happens to personal information

Deductive

Going from general to specific

Inductive

Going from specific to general 

Inter-rater reliability

When 2 or more researchers assess the data and results and give consistent estimates of the same phenomenon 

Progressive focusing

The ability to review the research at various stages and adjust accordingly if required to improve on the study

Reflexivity

Examining oneself as the researcher as well as the research relationship. Making the research process and researcher a focus of inquiry

Saturation

Little or no new data is generated from the participants, and it is believed that the sample size is adequate 

Triangulation

Improves validity of a study because it cross-validates data through verifying the research results through 2 or more sources, typically through the application or combination of different research methods, attempting to answer the same questions

Dependent variable

For intervention studies, the outcome measures expected to be affected by the intervention (independent) variable.

Descriptive research

Observational studies describing and optionally comparing the characteristics or responses of a sample.

Diagnostic accuracy study

A research design evaluating how well a clinical diagnostic or assessment procedure can identify the presence or absence of a health condition in a sample

Epidemiological research

The scientific study of causes and other factors affecting the occurrence illnesses, injuries, survival or recovery among populations and groups within a population

Experimental design

An intervention study involving at least one treatment group and a control or placebo group, so the effect on outcomes with and without the intervention can be compared

Independent variable

For intervention studies, the intervention or the treatment expected to affect the outcome (dependent) variable

Intervention study

Research where the researchers deliberately do something with participants with the intention of causing a change

Level of measurement

How quantitative information is recorded, according to whether only group membership (nominal scale) or ranking (ordinal scale) is identified, or whether quantities or amounts are directly measured (continuous scales). Continuous scales (interval and especially ratio) are considered more informative levels of measurement than categorical (nominal or ordinal) scales

Observational study

Research where the researchers do not intervene to bring about a change but instead observe and measure events as they happen naturally

PICO

A way of listing the clinical population, intervention (treatment), comparison or control conditions and measured outcomes for an experiment; useful for identifying search terms for intervention studies

Reliability

In measurement, the consistency and repeatability of measurement scores over time, measurement equipment and people doing the measuring

Systematic review

Secondary research evidence that answers a focused clinical question through a structured and rigorous synthesis of original, primary studies chosen with strict and transparent inclusion and exclusion criteria

Validity

In measurement, the accuracy of a measurement, whether a measurement system measures what it’s supposed to measure, and only what it’s supposed to measure, which depends in part on reliability

Variable

Anything measurable, either categorically or continuously, and can differ from one observation to another, such as among different individuals, groups of people, or across time

Allocation bias

Systematic differences in clinical trial groups and affecting results beyond treatments

Bias

Systematic, consistent error in results or conclusions from evidence; renders the evidence invalid or likely to be misinterpreted where the bias is concealed

Clinical practice guidelines

Document providing evidence-based recommendation for the clinical management of patients with a specific, known health condition

Clinical question

An inquiry about clinical practice, ideally answered from research evidence

Database

An organised list that can be searched by computer. In evidence-based practice, a catalogue of research evidence retrievable according to design of study, topic, clinical population or health condition, authorship, year of publication or other criteria relevant to the clinical question, the quality and accessibility of the evidence

Evidence

Information from research that may guide practice if that evidence is valid for the clinical scenario

Evidence-based practitioners

Health professionals who use recent, high-quality, relevant evidence from research in combination with professional judgement and the patient’s preferences and values to inform healthcare practice and policy decisions

GRADE system

A method for evaluating the quality of evidence used to develop recommendations informing clinical practice guidelines

Hierarchy

An ordered list, from highest (better) to lowest (not so good)

Levels of evidence

A list of study designs matched to clinical questions, and ranked in order of potential bias

Placebo

An intervention resembling a real treatment but without any expected therapeutic benefit.

Primary evidence

Evidence from original studies collecting data from new research published for the first time

Secondary evidence

Evidence compiled from existing, already available research results

Ontology

• Definition

  • 3 types

• Quantitative

• Qualitative

• Mixed methods

• What exists and what is the reality?

  • Realism

  • Relativism

  • Both (pragmatism-mixed)

• Quantitative, singular reality

• Qualitative, multiple reality

• Mixed methods, singular and multiple realities

Epistemology

• Definition

  • 3 types

• Quantitative

• Qualitative

• Mixed methods

• Ways of knowing to generate understanding of the world

  • What do we know and how do we know it?

  • empiricism/objectivism (quant), constructivism (qual), pragmatic stance (mixed methods)

• Quantitative, impartial and objective

• Qualitative, closeness and subjective

• Mixed methods, practicality

Methodology

• Definition

• Quantitative

• Qualitative

• Mixed methods

• A system of methods, principles and rules for that subject area

  • How do we find out?

• Quantitative, deductive

• Qualitative, inductive

• Mixed methods, multiple

Methods

• Definition

• Tools/techniques used to collect evidence/data

  • What specific procedures or tools do we use to find out?

Ethnography

• The art and science of describing a group or culture of interest

• Requires blending of methodological techniques particularly participant observation

Ethnography

• Passive observation

Systematic watching of behaviours and conversations in natural occurring settings — known to be the study of cultures and people

• In passive observation, the researcher is meant to observe the culture from the point of view of the participant.

Ethnography

• Participant observation

Observation in which the researcher also occupies a role or part in the setting in addition to observing.

• In participant observation, the researcher is meant to observe the culture from the point of view of the participant — essentially be embedded in the culture of observation

Phenomenology

• A school of thought that emphasises a focus on people's subjective experiences and interpretations of the world

  • In the context of their illness, disability or health system experience

• Involves studying a small number of subjects through extensive and prolonged engagement to develop patterns and relationships of meaning

Case studies

Used to look at individuals, a small group of participants, or a group as a whole. This approach begins with a clear definition of the case being researched and the researcher explores the people, behaviours, etc. based on the defined question of the research. The result of a case study is typically a report providing great detail about the case that was researched

Grounded theory

• Grounded theory refers to a inductive or informant led process of generating theory from data

  • Considered as ground-up or bottom-up processing

  • Involves immersing yourself in the participants words and developing literal understanding generating meaningful codes and theory 

Semi-structured interview

Face-to-face, telephone or skype conversation with participant(s) with the purpose of exploring issues or topics in detail. Uses a broad list of questions or topics (known as a topic guide)

Unstructured/narrative interview

Interview undertaken in a less structured fashion, with the purpose of getting a long story from the interviewee (typically a life story or the story of how an illness has unfolded over time). The interviewer holds back from prompting except to say 'tell me more'.

Focus groups

Method of group interview that explicitly includes and uses the group interaction to generate data

Discourse analysis

Detailed study of the words, phrases and formats used in particular social contexts (includes the study of naturally occurring talk as well as written materials such as policy documents or minutes of meetings)

Inductive thematics

• Like grounded theory it is a rigorous method for identifying, analysing and reporting patterns/themes within data

• Flexible approach that can be conducted independent of theory and epistemology

  • Or applied across a range of theoretical and epistemological approaches

  • There it can be essentialist/realist where it reports experiences, meanings and the reality of participants 

  • Or constructionist, examines the ways in which events, realities, meanings and experiences operate within society

• Helps to generate new understanding as opposed to developing theory

Narrative design

• Weaves together a sequence of events from 1 or 2 individuals to form a cohesive story

  • By listening to what people have to say about their lives we can better understand how phenomena or experiences are embedded in the context of an entire life and give meaning

• The way people conduct, interpret and understand themselves, others and events is by storying and re storying and by telling and further listening to their own and each other's

Detection bias

Differences in how the treatment and control groups are assessed or measured

Performance bias

Events other than the intended treatment happen during the experiment

Attrition bias

Some types of participants leave the study, more so in one group than another, setting up unwanted differences between groups in the background characteristics of the participants

Measurement bias

Outcomes are measured inaccurately

Time lag bias

Delays in publication prevent the research from being found by practitioners or reviewers in time for their review

Duplicated publication bias

The same results from the same studies are repeatedly published, suggesting there’s more evidence than there really is

Outcome reporting bias

Mainly desirable or large expected results or statistically significant results get published, even though other results are equally valid and informative; another type of publication bias

Citation bias

If a study is cited a lot by many other authors, reviewers are more likely to find that research compared with studies that are rarely cited or not cited at all

Database inclusion bias

Studies are much more easily found if they are available from online databases

Language bias

A preference among reviewers for studies published in the language they understand, commonly but not always English

Reviewer's’ personal biases

Reviews may unfairly exclude an article because they don’t like the topic or the results, even though the results are valid and relevant