Psych exam 1

Psychodynamic perspective

Focuses on the role of the unconscious and childhood experiences in affecting conscious behavior. Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson

Behavioral perspective

Focuses on observing and controlling behavior through what is observable. Puts an emphasis on learning and conditioning.Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, B. F. Skinner

Humanistic perspective

Emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans and rejects that psychology should focus on problems and disorders. Abraham Maslow, The Blackfoot Nation, Carl Rogers

Cognitive perspective

Focuses not just on behavior, but on mental processes and internal mental states. Ulric Neisser, Noam Chomsky, Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky

behaviorism

the psychological focus on observing and controlling behavior. Behaviorism as a theory holds that behaviors are learned or conditioned through environmental experiences.

biological perspective

a psychological approach that examines physiological causes for behavior

biopsychology

study of how biology influences behavior

biopsychosocial model

perspective that asserts that biology, psychology, and social factors interact to determine an individual’s health

clinical psychology

area of psychology that focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and other problematic patterns of behavior

cognitive psychology

area of psychology that focuses on studying thoughts and their relationship to our experiences and actions

cognitive revolution

a period of change in psychology during the 1950s and 1960s, characterized by a shift back to studying mental processes and the emergence of cognitive psychology as a prominent perspective

counseling psychology

discipline that focuses on emotional, social, vocational, and health-related outcomes in individuals who are considered psychologically healthy

cross-cultural psychologists

compare populations across countries

developmental psychology

the scientific study of development across a lifespan

dissertation

long research paper about research that was conducted as a part of the candidate’s doctoral training

eclectic approach

an approach in psychology where psychologists draw from multiple ideas and theories, integrating different perspectives to understand and study human behavior

empirical method

method for acquiring knowledge based on observation, including experimentation, rather than a method based only on forms of logical argument or previous authorities

evolutionary perspective

A psychological approach that posits behaviors have an evolutionary cause and grew from functionalist views

evolutionary psychology

seeks to understand human behavior as the result of psychological adaptation and natural selection

forensic psychology

area of psychology that applies the science and practice of psychology to issues within and related to the justice system

functionalism

focused on how mental activities helped an organism adapt to its environment

health psychology

the study of how psychological factors, including thoughts, emotions, behaviors, and social interactions, influence health and well-being

humanism

perspective within psychology that emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans

multicultural psychologists

develop theories and conduct research with diverse populations, typically within one country

natural selection

a process by which heritable traits conferring survival and reproductive advantage to individuals tend to be passed on to succeeding generations and become more frequent in a population

personality psychology

study of patterns of thoughts and behaviors that make each individual unique

personality trait

consistent pattern of thought and behavior

cause-and-effect relationship

changes in one variable cause the changes in the other variable; can be determined only through an experimental research design

clinical or case study

observational research study focusing on one or a few people

confirmation bias

tendency to ignore evidence that disproves ideas or beliefs

confounding variable

an unanticipated outside factor that affects both variables of interest, often giving the false impression that changes in one variable causes changes in the other variable, when, in actuality, the outside factor causes changes in both variables

control group

serves as a basis for comparison and controls for chance factors that might influence the results of the study—by holding such factors constant across groups so that the experimental manipulation is the only difference between groups

correlation

relationship between two or more variables; when two variables are correlated, one variable changes as the other does

correlation coefficient

number from -1 to +1, indicating the strength and direction of the relationship between variables, and usually represented by r

correlational research

tests whether a relationship exists between two or more variables

cross-sectional research

compares multiple segments of a population at a single time

debriefing

when an experiment involved deception, participants are told complete and truthful information about the experiment at its conclusion

deception

purposely misleading experiment participants in order to maintain the integrity of the experiment

deductive reasoning

results are predicted based on a general premise

dependent variable

variable that the researcher measures to see how much effect the independent variable had

descriptive research

research studies that do not test specific relationships between variables; they are used to describe general or specific behaviors and attributes that are observed and measured

distribution

the pattern of variation in a set of data

double-blind study

experiment in which both the researchers and the participants are blind to group assignments

experimental group

group designed to answer the research question; experimental manipulation is the only difference between the experimental and control groups, so any differences between the two are due to experimental manipulation rather than chance

experimental research

tests a hypothesis to determine cause and effect relationships

experimenter bias

researcher expectations skew the results of the study

hypothesis

tentative and testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables

independent variable

variable that is influenced or controlled by the experimenter; in a sound experimental study, the independent variable is the only important difference between the experimental and control group

inductive reasoning

conclusions are drawn from observations

longitudinal research

studies in which the same group of individuals is surveyed or measured repeatedly over an extended period of time

naturalistic observation

observation of behavior in its natural setting

negative correlation

two variables change in different directions, with one becoming larger as the other becomes smaller; a negative correlation is not the same thing as no correlation

observer bias

when observations may be skewed to align with observer expectations

operational definition

description of what actions and operations will be used to measure the dependent variables and manipulate the independent variables

placebo effect

people’s expectations or beliefs influencing or determining their experience in a given situation

positive correlation

two variables change in the same direction, both becoming either larger or smaller

random assignment

method of experimental group assignment in which all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to either group

random sample

subset of a larger population in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected

single-blind study

experiment in which the researcher knows which participants are in the experimental group and which are in the control group

standard deviation

a measure of how much the data varies from the mean score

statistical analysis

determines how likely any difference between experimental groups is due to chance

survey

list of questions to be answered by research participants—given as paper-and-pencil questionnaires, administered electronically, or conducted verbally—allowing researchers to collect data from a large number of people

test-retest reliability

the degree to which the outcomes of a particular measure remain consistent over multiple administrations

theory

well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena

action potential

an electrical signal that moves down the neuron’s axon

adrenal gland

sits atop our kidneys and secretes hormones involved in the stress response

agonist

a drug that mimics or strengthens the effects of a neurotransmitter

amygdala

structure in the limbic system involved in our experience of emotion and tying emotional meaning to our memories

antagonist

a drug that blocks or impedes the normal activity of a given neurotransmitter

auditory cortex

a strip of cortex in the temporal lobe that is responsible for processing auditory information

autonomic nervous system

controls our internal organs and glands

axon

a major extension from the neuron’s soma, which allows electrical signals to be passed from one neuron to another

axon terminals (terminal buttons)

the ends of a neuron’s axon where synaptic vesicles containing neurotransmitters send chemical messages to the next neuron

behavioral endocrinology

the study of psychology and the endocrine system; the scientific study of the interaction between hormones and behavior

behavioral genetics

the empirical science of how genes and environments combine to generate behavior

Broca’s area

a region in the left hemisphere that is essential for language production

central nervous system (CNS)

the brain and spinal cord

cerebellum

hindbrain structure that controls our balance, coordination, movement, and motor skills, and it is thought to be important in processing some types of memory

cerebral cortex

the surface of the brain that is associated with our highest mental capabilities

chromosome

a long strand of genetic information

corpus callosum

a thick band of neural fibers connecting the brain’s two hemispheres

dendrites

branch-like extension of the soma that receives incoming signals from other neurons

depolarization

when a cell’s charge becomes positive, or less negative

endocrine system

series of glands that produce chemical substances known as hormones

fight or flight response

activation of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system, allowing access to energy reserves and heightened sensory capacity so that we might fight off a given threat or run away to safety

forebrain

the largest part of the brain, containing the cerebral cortex, the thalamus, and the limbic system, among other structures

frontal lobe

the part of the cerebral cortex involved in reasoning, motor control, emotion, and language; contains motor cortex

glial cell

a nervous system cell that provides physical and metabolic support to neurons, including neuronal insulation and communication, and nutrient and waste transport

hindbrain

division of the brain containing the medulla, pons, and cerebellum

hippocampus

structure in the temporal lobe associated with learning and memory

homeostasis

state of equilibrium—biological conditions, such as body temperature, are maintained at optimal levels

hypothalamus

forebrain structure that regulates sexual motivation and behavior and a number of homeostatic processes; serves as an interface between the nervous system and the endocrine system

limbic system

the collection of structures involved in processing emotion and memory

longitudinal fissure

a deep groove in the brain’s cortex

medulla

hindbrain structure that controls automated processes like breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate

midbrain

division of the brain located between the forebrain and the hindbrain; contains the reticular formation

motor cortex

a strip of the cortex involved in planning and coordinating movement

myelin sheath

a fatty substance that insulates axons which increases the speed at which the signal travels

neuron

cells in the nervous system that act as interconnected information processors, which are essential for all of the tasks of the nervous system; the central building blocks of the nervous system

neuroplasticity

the ability of the nervous system to change and adapt