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What are biological processes in development?
Changes in an individual’s physical nature, such as puberty and brain development.
What are cognitive processes in development?
Changes in an individual’s thoughts, intelligence, and language, including communication.
What are socioemotional processes in development?
It refer to changes in an individual’s relationships, emotions, and personality.
What is an example of how biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes interact?
A child's temperament can affect socioemotional processes, which in turn may influence cognitive responses and biological development.
What is developmental cognitive neuroscience?
Explores the links between cognitive processes, brain development, and overall development
What is developmental social neuroscience?
Developmental social neuroscience examines the connections between socioemotional processes, development, and the brain.
What happens in adolescence regarding the amygdala and prefrontal cortex?
The amygdala is well-developed, encouraging risk-taking behavior, while the prefrontal cortex is still developing.
What is the life-span perspective on age?
It includes chronological, biological, psychological, and social age to provide an overall age profile of an individual.
What is biological age?
A person’s biological health compared to others of the same chronological age.
What is psychological age?
It’s a person’s adaptive capacities, comparing them to others of the same chronological age.
What is social age?
Social age refers to a person’s connectedness with others and the adoption of social roles, which change with societal expectations.
What is normal aging?
Aging where psychological functioning peaks during early middle age.
What is pathological aging?
Refers to individuals with above-average decline, possibly developing cognitive impairments or chronic diseases.
What is successful aging?
Maintaining positive physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional development later in life.
What is the nature-nurture debate?
The nature-nurture debate concerns whether development is primarily influenced by biological inheritance (nature) or environmental experiences (nurture).
What is the epigenetic view?
Proposes that development results from ongoing, bidirectional interactions between genes and the environment.
What are stability-change issues in development?
Stability-change issues debate whether early traits persist through life or change as a person develops.
What is the continuity-discontinuity issue in development?
The continuity-discontinuity issue debates whether development is gradual and cumulative (continuity) or occurs in distinct stages (discontinuity).
What is Freud's theory of development?
Freud's psychoanalytic theory focuses on unconscious drives, emphasizing the impact of early childhood experiences on behavior. It includes five stages of psychosexual development.
What are Erikson's stages of psychosocial development?
Erikson’s theory includes 8 stages, ranging from trust vs. mistrust in infancy to integrity vs. despair in late adulthood.
How did Erikson's theory differ from Freud's?
Erikson emphasized social influences and believed development continues throughout life, unlike Freud's focus on sexual stages early in life.
What is the sensorimotor stage
Birth to 2 years old
What is the preoperational stage?
2 to 7 years old
What is the concrete operational stage
7 to 11 years old
What is the formal operational stage
11 years old to adult hood
What is Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development?
Vygotsky emphasized the role of culture and social interactions in cognitive development, suggesting they are inseparable.
What is the information-processing theory?
Information-processing theory emphasizes how individuals manipulate, monitor, and strategize about information, with a focus on memory and thinking.
What is Skinner's operant conditioning theory?
Skinner’s theory emphasizes behavior shaped by rewards and punishments
What is Bandura’s social cognitive theory?
Bandura’s theory highlights the interaction of behavior, environment, and cognition, suggesting that individuals guide their behavior through forethought and goal-setting.
What is the ethological theory?
Ethology stresses that behavior is influenced by biology, evolution, and experiences during critical or sensitive periods of development.
What is Lorenz's research on imprinting in geese?
Lorenz demonstrated that geese imprint on the first moving object they see during a critical period of their development.
What is Bowlby’s attachment theory?
It suggests that attachment to caregivers in the first year of life has significant consequences for social relationships throughout life.
What does Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory emphasize
The microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem on development.
Microsystem
Setting in which the individual lives and helps to construct
Mesosystem
the relations between Microsystems or connections between context
Example of mesosystem
a parent who has a stressful job might parent differently because of stressors outside of the home that might affect the child
Exosystem
links between a social setting in which the individual has a passive role and their immediate context
Macrosystem
the culture in which individuals live (traditions, our culture, things we surround ourselves with)
Chronosystem
the patterning the environmental events and transition over the life course (historic events)
What begins human life?
Human life begins as a single cell called a zygote
What is the role of chromosomes?
Located in the nucleus, carry genetic information
What is DNA?
DNA is a double-helix molecule containing genetic information
What are genes?
DNA units that carry hereditary information, help cells reproduce, and create proteins
What is gene expression?
It’s influenced by environmental factors and hormones, activating or deactivating genes
What is methylation?
Methylation is when molecules attach to genes, influencing how they respond to signals, affecting behaviors like exercise and diet
How do environmental factors affect genes?
Exercise, diet, and sleep can affect genes through methylation, altering gene behavior
How many chromosomes do humans have?
Humans have 46 chromosomes in 23 pairs (except sperm and egg cells)
What is mitosis?
Mitosis is cell division that creates two identical cells with the same DNA
What is meiosis?
Meiosis is cell division forming gametes (sperm and egg)
What is fertilization?
Fertilization is when sperm and egg combine to form a zygote
What is a zygote?
A single cell formed after fertilization, with 23 chromosomes from each parent
What is a genotype?
Genotype is a person’s genetic makeup
What are susceptibility and longevity genes?
Susceptibility genes make aging faster, while longevity genes slow it down
What is a mutated gene?
A DNA segment permanently altered, potentially causing disease
What is a phenotype?
How a genotype appears in physical and psychological traits
How does the environment affect phenotype?
Environmental factors like nutrition can impact the expression of genetic traits (e.g., height)
How does genetic variation occur?
Genetic variation comes from combining parental genes, creating unique offspring
What is the dominant-recessive gene principle
Dominant genes override recessive ones, determining physical traits
What is sex-linked inheritance?
Inheritance involves genes on the X chromosome, often affecting males more due to their single X chromosome
What is polygenic inheritance?
Polygenic inheritance involves multiple genes influencing a trait (e.g., skin color)
What is gene-gene interaction?
Multiple genes affect traits, behavior, and diseases
What is Down syndrome?
Having an extra chromosome 21, leading to intellectual and physical disabilities
What is Klinefelter syndrome?
Klinefelter syndrome occurs when males have an extra X chromosome, leading to underdeveloped testes and other traits
What is PKU (phenylketonuria)?
PKU is a genetic disorder where the body can’t metabolize phenylalanine, leading to intellectual disabilities
What is sickle cell anemia?
Sickle cell anemia is a genetic disorder causing misshaped red blood cells, affecting oxygen transport
What is behavior genetics?
Studies how heredity and environment influence traits and behavior
What is a twin study?
A twin study compares identical twins’ traits to those of fraternal twins, showing genetic vs. environmental influences
What is an adoption study?
An adoption study compares adopted children’s traits with biological vs. adoptive parents, highlighting heredity vs. environment
What is passive genotype-environment correlation?
It happens when parents create an environment based on their genetics that shapes the child’s development
What is evocative genotype-environment correlation?
Occurs because a child’s genetically influenced characteristics elicit certain types of environments.
What is active (niche-picking) genotype-environment correlation?
Active correlation is when children seek environments that align with their genetic predispositions
What is the epigenetic view?
The epigenetic view says development is shaped by an ongoing interaction between genetics and the environment
What is gene × environment interaction?
Gene × environment interaction is the combined effect of specific genetic variations and environmental factors on development
What is prenatal development?
Is the process from conception to birth, starting with the zygote and developing into a fetus
What happens in the germinal period?
The first 2 weeks involves zygote creation, cell division, and attachment to the uterine wall
What happens in the embryonic period?
The embryonic period (2-8 weeks) involves cell differentiation and organ formation.
What are the three cell layers in the embryo?
The three layers are endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm, which form different organs and systems
What is organogenesis?
The formation of organs during the first two months of prenatal development
What are the key life-support systems for the embryo?
The amnion (fluid sac), umbilical cord, and placenta support the embryo
What happens at the first trimester of development?
The embryo develops basic structures like the spinal cord, heart, and nervous system
What are the developments at 8 weeks?
The embryo is 1 inch long, and basic facial features and brain structures begin to form
What happens at 12 weeks?
The fetus can move and has distinct fingerprints and sex characteristics
What happens at 16 weeks?
The fetus has coordinated movements and distinct hair and nail growth
What are key developments at 24 weeks?
The fetus has open eyes, is about 14 inches long, and can grip objects
What happens at 28 weeks?
The fetus gains body fat and shows active movements with breathing patterns
What are developments at 32 weeks?
The fetus responds to sounds, gains body fat, and positions itself for birth
What are key developments at 36-38 weeks?
The fetus is less active, gains immunity from the mother, and prepares for birth
What is the brain development process in prenatal stages?
It involves forming the neural tube, neurogenesis, migration, and connectivity
What are teratogens?
Teratogens are harmful agents (e.g., drugs, radiation) that cause birth defects
What effects do prescription and nonprescription drugs have?
Certain drugs like antibiotics, antidepressants, and acne medications can harm the embryo or fetus
What is the effect of alcohol on prenatal development?
Alcohol can cause fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, leading to birth defects and cognitive problems
How does nicotine affect prenatal development?
Nicotine causes low birth weight, ADHD, and impaired brain development
What are the effects of cocaine and marijuana on pregnancy?
Cocaine can cause neurological issues, while marijuana affects IQ and birth weight
What are the effects of maternal diseases?
Diseases like rubella and syphilis can cause defects and complications during pregnancy
How does exercise affect prenatal development?
Improves maternal health, reduces stress, and promotes fetal brain development
What is the cephalocaudal pattern of development?
Growth starts at the top (head) and works its way down to the body, causing a larger head-to-body proportion
What is the proximodistal pattern of development?
Growth begins at the center of the body and moves outward toward the extremities (e.g., the neck muscles develop first)
What is the average size of a newborn in the U.S.?
20 inches in length and 7.6 pounds in weigh
When do growth spurts occur in infants?
Around 6 weeks, and growth often affects sleep patterns
What is the significance of myelination in infants?
Myelin protects neurons, speeds processing, and is critical for cognitive development like language learning
