TEST ANALYSIS (important information)

Text types (Welich), commuinicative functions (Jakobson), terms concerning Lexis, cohesive devices (coherence & cohesion), tone of a text (register)

Types of text

1. Narrative

2. Descriptive

3. Expository

4. Argumentative

5. Instructive

6. Dialogic

Narrative texts

Intention: to report on actions and facts, real or fictive: What happens? What is X doing?

Narrative texts examples

• News

• Chronicle

• Novel

• Tale

• Films

Descriptive texts

Intention: To report on states: what is x like?

Descriptive texts examples

• Portrait

• Caricature

• Advertising

• Tourist guides

• Catalogues

• Brochures (pamphlet)

• Literary descriptions

Expository texts

Intention: To report in order to make X understand an idea or concept with didactic intention: what is X?

Analysis or synthesis of speaker’s ideas and concepts

Expository texts examples

• Brochures (pamphlets)

• Lectures

• Scientific papers

• Scholarly books: text books, tests, examinations, notes, presentations, schemes

Argumentative texts

Intention: To give and rebate opinions, to persuade or make X believe something: What do I think?

Argumentatiave texts examples

• Essays

• Letters to the editor

• Editorial

• Opinion articles

• Court speeches

• Political speeches

• Sermons

• Advertising

• Debates

• Round tables

Instructive texts

Intention: to lead, command, advice, how is it done?

Future behaviour of speaker or hearer

Instructive texts examples

• Recipes

• Instructions of use

• Publication norms for authors

Dialogical texts

Intention: to establish communication and exchange information between interlocutors in a natural, interactive way.

Dialogical texts examples

• Conversations (informal, spontaneous)

• Interviews (structured, with a clear purpose)

• Debates (formal, aiming to persuade)

• Role-plays (for educational purposes)

• Plays or Scripts (literary or dramatic dialogues)

Genres vs text-types

Typically, the list of genres is open-ended while text-types are close-ended.

Texts within particular genres can differ greatly in their linguistic characteristics - text in newspaper articles can range from narrative and colloquial to informational and elaborated.

Different texts can be similar linguistically (e.g. newspapers and magazine articles). There may be subgenres such as book reviews, opinion articles, obituraries.

Fiction and its types

• Fantasy

• Realistic fiction

• Mystery

• Historical fiction

• Science fiction

Non-fiction and its types

• Informational

• Biography

• Autobiography

Traditional literature

• Folktales

• Legends

• Fables

• Fairy tales

• Myths

Genre definition

It is a category used to classify both fictional and non-fictional writing, usually by form, structure, technique and/or content.

Literature primarily deals with

the fictional world and is commonly divided into three major genres:

1. Poetry

2. Prose

3. Drama

Text types, what type of text is it? (Welich’s classification)

1. Narrative: tells a story

2. Descriptive: puts a picture in your head, a detailed account of a person, place or thing

3. Expository: Explains or informs about a certain topic

4. Persuasive: wants the audience to agreed

5. Argumentative: Present a point of view and try to persuade the reader to agree with it

Narrative texts (Welich)

Its main purpose is to tell a story, it is linked to descriptive. Since most of these type of texts have elements of description.

Descriptive texts (Welich)

They put a picture in your head, a detailed account of a person, place or thing.

Expository texts (Welich)

They explain or inform about a certain topic

These type of texts use a lot of facts to explain something to you but the purpose is to give an explanation of something

Persuasive texts (Welich)

They want the audience to agree

Argumentative texts (Welich)

They present a point of view and try to persuade the reader to agree with it. Its purpose is to convince the reader of an idea. They are similar to expository since both use facts and examples to indicate something.

Instructive texts or procedure (Welich)

When there is planning of future behaviour with option (like advertisements, manual or recipes) or without option (like legislation or contracts)

How to decide which type of text is a fragment?

When you have to decide what type of text it is you have to think about the purpose of it. Most texts are narrative, but we have to be careful. The purpose of that fragment may be to bring the picture

Persuasive vs argumentative texts

• Persuasive texts aim to influence the reader's emotions and beliefs to take action. (they include a call to action.)

• Argumentative texts rely on logic, evidence, and counterarguments to defend a claim.

Communicative functions (Jakobson) DEFINITION

These refer to the purpose and focus of the communication act, and what the writer does to achieve that purpose. Communicative functions take into account:

• Who says that

• Focusing on content or form

• To whom

• And how

• Which context

• Which channel

• which code

Communicative functions Jakobson TYPES

1. Referential functions (context or referent)

2. Emotive or expressive functions (the speaker)

3. Conative functions (the hearer)

4. Poetic functions (the message)

5. Phatic or contact functions (channel of communication)

6. Metalinguistic functions (code or language being used)

The Referential Function

It is oriented towards the context or referent, the most obvious one to express and assess facts. E.g. It’s ten o’clock. It is used in scientific documents

Referential function examples

• "The capital of France is Paris."

• "It’s raining outside."

Examples of texts:

• News reports

• Scientific texts

• Historical facts.

The emotive or expressive function

It is oriented to the speaker. Speaker’s feelings or attitude towards the message. E.g. I’m so happy today. It is used in personal letters.

The emotive or expressive function examples

• "Ouch! That hurts!"

• "What a beautiful day!"

Examples of texts:

• Personal diaries

• Letters

• Opinion pieces.

Conative function

It is oriented towards the hearer. Its goal is to provoke a certain reaction in the hearer or addressee. For instance, expressing orders or suggestions like Please close the window. It is used in advertisements.

Conative function examples

• "Close the door, please."

• "Could you help me with this?"

• "Don’t forget your homework!"

Examples of texts:

• Instructions

• Advertisements

• Persuasive texts.

• Argumentative texts

The phatic or contact function

It is directed to the channel of communication. It ensured that communication is taking place effectively. E.g. Can you hear me? It deal with language for the sake of interaction, it may be used to establish a social connection without really communicating any meaningful information like in how are you?I’m fine.It is used in conversational texts.

The phatic or contact function examples

• "Hello, how are you?"

• "Can you hear me?"

• "Goodbye!"

Examples of texts:

• Greetings

• Small talk

• Social interactions.

The metalinguistic function

It is addressed to the code or language being used, it is used to clarify the meaning of a concept e.g. What do you mean by…? and also to speak about the language itself. It is used in linguistic science.

The metalinguistic function examples

• "What do you mean by 'syntax'?"

• "A noun is a person, place, or thing."

• "Let me explain what 'metaphor' means."

Examples of texts:

• Grammar explanations

• Language definitions

• Clarifying instructions.

The aesthetic or poetic function

It is oriented to the message itself, focusing on the form to express the message, e.g. using rhetorical figures. Through poetic language, the speaker produces an aesthetic effect on the hearer. It is used in poetry.

The aesthetic or poetic function examples

• "Twinkle, twinkle, little star."

• "Just do it!" (Nike slogan)

• "A rose by any other name would smell as sweet."

Examples of texts

• Poetry

• Creative writing

• Literary analysis.

Characteris

Direct characterisation

“This character is stupid from the day he was born”

Indirect characterisation

Dicken is a master of this (if someone is evil, everything around him is evil for instance, the air is evil).

Discourse strategies

1. Theme

2. Rheme

3. Cohesion

Theme

The main idea of the text

• The theme generally comes at the beginning of the sentence.

• Function: The theme is what the speaker or writer is commenting on or talking about.

Rheme

The information that is given by the text. Subject, what is said, introduction.

It is the new information or comment that the speaker is giving about the theme. It adds further detail or development to what was introduced in the theme.

Theme vs Rheme

• The theme is what the sentence is about, while the rheme is the new information provided about that subject.

Cohesion

Grammatical and lexical linking within a text or sentence that helps ensure that the parts of a text are connected and flow logically

Coherence

Refers to the overall clarity and logical flow of ideas in a text. It ensures that the text makes sense as a whole and that the ideas are organised in a way that is easy for the reader to follow.

cohesion vs coherence

• Cohesion: How the parts of the text are linked together using linguistic tools (e.g., conjunctions, references, and substitutions).

• Coherence: How the ideas in the text are logically connected and organized to make sense to the reader.

Abbreviations

1. Initialisms (items which are spoken as individual letters such as BBC)

2. Acronyms (items which are pronounced as a single word, e.g. NATO)

3. Clippings (parts of words which serve for the whole, e.g. phone)

4. Blendings (words which are made out of the shortened forms of two other words, e.g. Brunch)

5. Other:

   • asap (as soon as possible)

   • aka (also known as)

Aphorisms

It is a concise and witty statement or expression of a general truth or principle. They are often memorable because they distill complex ideas into a short and impactful sentence or phrase.

"Actions speak louder than words."

"You can't judge a book by its cover."

"To be, or not to be, that is the question."

“If you judge a fish by its ability to climb trees, it will spend its whole life thinking it is stupid.”

Archaisms

These are words, phrases, or expressions that are no longer in common use in the modern language but were once regularly used in the past. They typically appear in literature or historical texts and are often associated with a previous historical period or style of writing.

E.g.

• Behold

• Yonder

• Tis

• Thou

Catch phrases

It is a short, memorable phrase or slogan that becomes widely associated with a particular person, character, group, or brand. They are designed to be easily repeatable and recognizable by a wide audience.

"Because you're worth it." – L'Oréal

"To infinity and beyond!" – Buzz Lightyear (Toy Story)

"That's what she said." – Michael Scott (The Office)

“Elementary, my Dear Watson”

Clichés

An overused phrase, idea or expression that has lost its originality and impact due to excessive use. Often seen as predictable or unoriginal. “Time heals all wounds”; “ignorance is a bliss” "Better late than never." "It is what it is." "What doesn't kill you makes you stronger." "The grass is always greener on the other side." "A picture is worth a thousand words."

Doublespeak

Language that is deliberately ambiguous, evasive, or misleading, often used to manipulate or deceive others. It involves the use of euphemisms, jargon, or complex wording to obscure the true meaning of something or to make an unpleasant truth sound more acceptable

“Collateral damage” instead of “civilian casualties”

"Downsizing" (instead of "laying off employees" or "firing")

"Revenue enhancement" (instead of "tax increase"):

“Correctional facility" (instead of "prison")

Epithets

These are descriptive words or phrases used to characterize a person, thing, or idea, often highlighting a particular quality or feature. They are commonly employed in literature, rhetoric, and everyday language to emphasize distinctive traits, either positively or negatively.

The King to refer to Elvis Presley

"The King of Pop" (Michael Jackson)

Common Epithets in Everyday Life:

• "The Boss" (for a manager or leader, emphasizing authority).

• "The Old Man" (sometimes used to refer to an elderly person or father figure).

• "The Genius" (for someone with remarkable intelligence or talent).

Homophones

Words which are pronounced the same but are spelt differently and have different meaning, e.g. night/knight

The writer sometimes use them to produce puns (juegos de palabras)

Homonyms

Words which have the same sound and spelling but different meanings e.g. a bear / to bear

The writer sometimes use them to produce puns (juegos de palabras)

Idioms

idiomatic expressions which are fixed both grammatically and lexically.

"Break the ice"

"Bite the bullet" (To do something unpleasant)

"A blessing in disguise"

"Once in a blue moon"

"The ball is in your court"

"The best of both worlds"

"Cost an arm and a leg"

"Kill two birds with one stone"

Jargon

The use of technical vocabulary within a special activity or group. While it can enhance communication within a group, it can create barriers for others who are not familiar with it.

E.g. medicine: myocardial infarction (instead of saying heart attack).

Political correctness

use vocabulary or expressions to avoid offending different social groups. Using economic disadvantaged instead of poor

Proverbs

Pieces of conventional wisdom, handed down by previous generations. General truth, piece of advice or wisdom based on common sense or experience. They are often metaphorical.

“A stitch in time saves nine”

“You can’t judge a book by its cover.”

Puns

It is the humorous use of a word or phrase to suggest different meanings or of words of the same sound and different meanings

“I used to be a baker, but I couldn’t make enough dough (baking ingredient and slang for money)

“I’m reading a book on anti-gravity. It’s impossible to put down”

Rebus

When we use letters, symbols or pictures to represent words or phrases. One of the most commons is "IOU" for "I owe you".

Slang

Very colloquial language, usually typical of a particular class or group and which uses either new words or current words used in some special sense

"Slay"

"Vibe"

"Ghosted”

Slogans

“Catchy” phrases used in advertising, political campaigns, road safety, environmental, etc. campaigns.

Hyponym

It is a more specific word within a category or class defined by a hypernym. It represents a member of a broader group.

Example pigeon, crow, eagle and seagul are all hyponyms of the hypernym “bird”

Hypernym

It is a word that is more general than another word. It represents a broader category or class that encompasses more specific items or concepts.

Example pigeon, crow, eagle and seagul are all hyponyms of the hypernym “bird”

Anaphoric reference

(reference backwards) when they refer to a noun which has already come out in the text.

Cataphoric reference

(reference forwards) when they refer to a noun which appears later in the text

Exophoric reference

occurs when a word or phrase refers to something outside the discourse