PSYCH 209 MIDTERM 2
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148 Terms
Naturalistic Observation
Observing behavior in its natural environment without intervention or manipulation by the researcher.
Participant Observation
The researcher becomes part of the group being studied to gain deeper insight into behavior.
Systematic Observation
Careful, structured observation of specific behaviors in a controlled or natural setting using consistent methods.
Coding System
A set of rules used to categorize and record behaviors observed in research.
Reactivity
When individuals alter their behavior because they know they’re being observed.
Case Study
An in-depth analysis of a single individual, group, or event.
Psychobiography
A type of case study focusing on one person’s life using psychological theory.
Archival Research
Using existing records or data sources (e.g., public documents, historical records) to study research questions.
Meta-Analysis
A statistical technique combining results from multiple studies to draw broader conclusions.
Content Analysis
Systematic examination of text, media, or speech to identify patterns or themes.
Quantitative Research
Collects numerical data and uses statistical analysis to test hypotheses.
Qualitative Research
Focuses on non-numerical data like words, images, or observations to explore meanings and experiences.
Concept Definition
A clear description of what a term or variable means within the context of a study.
Response Set
A pattern of answering questions that is unrelated to the actual content of the items.
Social Desirability
The tendency to respond in ways that make oneself look good to others.
Research Objectives
The specific goals or purposes that guide a research study.
Double-Barreled Questions
Survey questions that ask about two things at once, making answers unclear.
Loaded Questions
Questions that contain emotionally charged or biased wording that influences responses.
Negative Wording
Phrasing questions in a way that includes negatives, which can confuse respondents.
Yea-saying and Nay-saying
The tendency for some respondents to agree (yea-saying) or disagree (nay-saying) with all items regardless of content.
Close-Ended Questions
Questions with fixed response options (e.g., multiple choice, yes/no).
Open-Ended Questions
Questions allowing participants to respond in their own words.
Rating Scales
Numerical scales used to measure the degree of a person’s attitude, feeling, or behavior.
Formatting
The layout and appearance of a questionnaire that influences clarity and response accuracy.
Sequencing
The order in which survey questions are presented.
Refining
The process of revising questions to improve clarity, precision, and reliability.
Questionnaires
Written sets of questions given to participants to gather data.
Interviews
Direct, verbal questioning of participants, either structured or unstructured.
Population
The entire group of people the researcher wants to study or generalize to.
Sample
The subset of the population selected for the study.
Confidence Interval
A range of values that estimates the true population parameter with a certain level of confidence.
Sampling Error
The difference between sample results and the actual population characteristics due to random chance.
Probability Sampling
Each member of the population has a known and equal chance of being selected.
Non-Probability Sampling
The probability of any member being selected is unknown; not all have equal chances.
Sampling Frame
The list of all members of the population from which a sample is drawn.
Response Rate
The percentage of people who complete a survey out of those who were contacted.
Confounding Variable
An uncontrolled variable that may explain changes in the dependent variable instead of the independent variable.
Internal Validity
The degree to which a study demonstrates a causal relationship between variables without interference from confounds.
Posttest-Only Design
Participants are assigned to groups, experience an experimental condition, and are measured after the manipulation.
Selection Differences
Preexisting differences between groups that can affect results if random assignment is not used.
Pretest-Posttest Design
Participants are measured before and after the manipulation to assess changes over time.
Attrition/Mortality
When participants drop out of a study, potentially affecting results.
Solomon Four-Group Design
Combines pretest-posttest and posttest-only designs to control for pretest effects.
Independent Groups Design
Each participant experiences only one level of the independent variable (between-subjects design).
Repeated Measures Design
Each participant experiences all levels of the independent variable (within-subjects design).
Random Assignment
Randomly placing participants into groups to control for individual differences.
Counterbalancing
Varying the order of conditions to control for order effects in repeated-measures designs.
Latin Square
A method to ensure each condition appears in each order position an equal number of times.
Matched Pairs Design
Participants are paired based on similar characteristics, and each member of a pair is assigned to a different condition.
Order Effect
When the order of conditions affects participants’ responses.
Practice Effect
Improved performance due to repeated exposure or familiarity with a task.
Carryover Effect
When the effects of one condition carry over and influence performance in the next.
Fatigue Effect
Decline in performance due to tiredness or boredom across conditions.
Straightforward Manipulations
Using simple, direct stimuli to change the independent variable.
Staged Manipulation
Using deception or scenarios to create a psychological state or simulate a real-world situation.
Confederate
An actor who appears to be a participant but is actually part of the experiment.
Strength of Manipulation
The intensity or degree of change in the independent variable to produce measurable effects.
Self-Reports
Participants describe their own thoughts, feelings, or behaviors.
Behavioral Measures
Observations of participants’ actions to infer psychological states.
Physiological Measures
Recording bodily responses to infer psychological states (e.g., heart rate, brain activity).
Galvanic Skin Response (GSR)
Measures skin conductance changes associated with arousal or stress.
Electromyogram (EMG)
Measures muscle tension and electrical activity associated with movement or emotion.
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
Records electrical brain activity through scalp electrodes.
MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)
Produces detailed images of brain structure using magnetic fields.
Functional MRI (fMRI)
Measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow while performing tasks.
Sensitivity
The ability of a measure to detect meaningful differences or effects.
Ceiling Effect
When the task is too easy, so everyone scores near the top and differences are masked.
Floor Effect
When the task is too difficult, so everyone scores near the bottom and differences are masked.
Demand Characteristics
Cues that inform participants of the study’s purpose and cause them to change behavior.
Filter Items
Questions used to identify participants who meet certain criteria before continuing a survey.
Placebo Group
A control group receiving an inactive treatment to compare against the experimental condition.
Expectancy Effects
When researchers’ expectations influence participants’ behavior or data collection.
Single-Blind Experiment
Participants are unaware of which condition they’re in, but researchers know.
Double-Blind Experiment
Both participants and researchers are unaware of group assignments to reduce bias.
Pilot Study
A small-scale preliminary study to test procedures and identify problems.
Manipulation Check
A measure used to determine whether the independent variable was successfully manipulated.