AQA Britian Health & The People c1000 to Present Day

Who was Hippocrates and why is he called the "father of modern medicine"?

Hippocrates was an ancient Greek physician who lived around 460–370 BC. He is called the "father of modern medicine" because he shifted the focus of medicine from supernatural and religious beliefs towards rational observation and logical reasoning.

What are the four humors?

The Greek physician Hippocrates (c. 460–c. 370 BC) developed the theory. He believed that the body contained four essential fluids: blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile. According to this theory, a person became sick when these humours were out of balance

Who was Galen?

Galen was a prominent Greek physician, surgeon, and philosopher in the Roman Empire. His extensive writings on anatomy, physiology, and medicine, which were largely based on animal dissections and the Four Humours theory, heavily influenced Western medicine for over 1,300 years.

What was Galen's "Theory of Opposites"?

Galen expanded Hippocrates' Four Humours theory by proposing a "Theory of Opposites." This involved treating a patient with the opposite of their symptoms to rebalance the humours (e.g., treating a cold, which was believed to be caused by an excess of cold and wet phlegm, with hot and spicy food).

Why did the Church accept Galen's theories for so long?

The Church endorsed Galen's work because his ideas were compatible with Christian beliefs. He wrote about a single divine creator and did not require human dissection, which the Church opposed. As the Church controlled education and universities, Galen's texts became the foundation of medical teaching for centuries. 

What were the main ideas about the cause of disease in the medieval period?

• Supernatural and religious explanations: Punishment from God for sins, or caused by evil spirits or witchcraft.

• Astrology: The alignment of planets and stars was believed to cause disease.

• Miasma: Bad air, foul smells, and vapours from rotting materials were thought to cause illness.

• Theory of the Four Humours: An imbalance of the four bodily fluids (blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile) caused illness.

How did the Church influence medieval medicine, both positively and negatively?

• Positive: Established and funded hospitals (often in monasteries) to care for the sick, provided free care, and preserved ancient medical works by copying them.

• Negative: Discouraged challenging accepted medical ideas (like Galen's), banned dissection, and promoted prayer and supernatural explanations over effective medical treatment.

Who was Edwin Chadwick?

Edwin Chadwick was a social reformer whose 1842 report linked poor sanitation to disease and high death rates. His work influenced the government to pass the first Public Health Act in 1848, leading to sanitation reforms. 

What was Germ Theory?

Louis Pasteur proved in 1861 that microorganisms, or germs, cause decay and disease. This discovery, later supported by Robert Koch's work, ended the dominance of the miasma theory. 

Who was Aneurin Bevan, and what was his role in the creation of the NHS?

As Minister for Health in the Labour government, Aneurin Bevan was the driving force behind the establishment of the National Health Service (NHS) in 1948. Despite considerable opposition, he successfully negotiated its creation, ensuring free healthcare for all citizens. 

What was the significance of Howard Florey and Ernst Chain?

These Oxford scientists took up Fleming's work in the late 1930s. They developed a method for purifying and mass-producing penicillin, which was funded by the US government during World War II and saved millions of lives. 

What was Alexander Fleming's major discovery?

In 1928, Fleming, a Scottish doctor, accidentally discovered penicillin, the world's first antibiotic. He noticed that a mould growing on a petri dish killed the bacteria around it. He published his findings but was unable to mass-produce the antibiotic.

Who was Joseph Lister, and how did he apply Germ Theory to surgery?

A British surgeon, Lister read Pasteur's work and pioneered antiseptic surgery in the 1860s. He used carbolic acid to kill germs in the operating room, which drastically reduced the death rate from post-operative infections. 

Who was Robert Koch, and what were his contributions following Pasteur's work?

Koch was a German doctor who built on Pasteur's Germ Theory by proving that different diseases were caused by different germs. He developed a method to stain and grow bacteria, allowing him to identify the specific microbes causing diseases like anthrax (1876) and tuberculosis (1882).

Who was Edward Jenner, and what was his contribution to preventing disease?

Jenner was an English doctor who, in 1796, developed the first vaccine to prevent smallpox. He observed that milkmaids who contracted the mild disease cowpox did not get smallpox. He tested this theory by inoculating a boy with cowpox, who was later immune to smallpox.

Who was Ambroise Paré, and what were his key contributions to surgery in the 16th century?

Paré was a French barber-surgeon who improved surgical techniques on the battlefield. He replaced the use of painful boiling oil to cauterise wounds with a soothing ointment and developed ligatures (threads) to tie off blood vessels during amputation, making it a safer procedure.