AP psychology unit 1

Experimental

- a branch of psychology that uses scientific methods and controlled experiments to study the mind, brain, and behavior

non-experimental

- the study of human behavior and mental processes where the researcher does not change, control, or manipulate an independent variable, nor randomly assign people to different groups

Independent variable (IV)

- the factor that a researcher deliberately manipulates, controls, or changes to test its effect on another factor

Dependent variable (DV)

- the outcome or response that a researcher measures to see if it changes when they alter the independent variable

Confounding variables

- an outside or hidden factor in a study that relates to both the supposed cause (independent variable) and the outcome (dependent variable)

Random assignment

- an experimental technique where researchers use chance procedures to place study participants into different groups, such as a treatment group or a control group

Population

- the total group of people or things that a researcher wants to study

Sample

- a smaller group of participants chosen from a larger target population

Random sampling

- a subset of individuals chosen from a larger target population in a way that gives every single person an equal and independent chance of being selected

Representative samples

- a smaller group of participants chosen from a larger population

Convenience samples

- a non-probability research group chosen because the people are easy to reach and close by, rather than picked at random

Sampling bias

- a flaw in research design where certain members of a target population are systematically more likely to be chosen than others

Generalizability

- how much you can apply the results of a research study to a wider group of people, different real-world situations, or different times

Experimental group

- the set of participants who are exposed to a specific manipulation of the independent variable

Control group

- a set of participants who do not receive the experimental treatment or intervention.

Placebo group

- a set of participants in research who receive a fake or neutral treatment—such as a sugar pill or saline shot—instead of the real intervention

Placebo effect

- a change in a person's health or behavior that happens after they get a fake treatment

Single-blind procedure

- a research study design where the people taking part do not know if they get the real treatment or a fake placebo

Double-blind procedure

- a research method in which neither the participants nor the researchers interacting with them know who receives the real treatment and who receives a fake control or placebo

Experimenter bias

- when a researcher's own hopes or beliefs change the results of a study

Case study

- an in-depth, detailed research method that closely examines a single person, small group, or unique event

Correlation (does not equal causation)

- a statistical measure that describes the size and direction of a relationship between two or more variables

Positive correlation

- a relationship between two variables where both move in the same direction

Negative correlation

- an inverse relationship between two variables where an increase in one variable leads to a decrease in the other

Directionality problem

- a limitation in correlational research where a researcher finds a statistical link between two variables, but cannot tell which variable causes the other to change

Third-variable problem

- when an unmeasured, hidden factor causes an observed correlation between two other variables, making them look like they are directly connected when they are not

Scatterplots

- a graph that uses dots to show the relationship between two different numbers or variables

Correlation coefficient

- a single number from -1.0 to +1.0 that shows the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables

Quantitative measures (e.g. Likert scales)

- tools and techniques used to collect numerical data about human behavior, thoughts, or feelings

Qualitative measures (e.g. structured interviews)

- tools and techniques used to collect non-numerical data, such as words, feelings, behaviors, and subjective experiences

Surveys

- a research tool used to gather self-reported data from a sample of individuals

Framing

- a cognitive bias where people react differently to the same choice depending on how it is presented

Social desirability bias

- the tendency of people to give answers that look good to others instead of telling the truth

Self-report bias

- happens when people give inaccurate answers on surveys or interviews about themselves

Meta-analysis

- a statistical method used to combine and analyze the results of multiple independent studies on the same research topic

Naturalistic observation

- a research method where psychologists watch and record human or animal behavior in real-world settings

Hypothesis

- a specific, testable prediction about the expected outcome of a study or the relationship between two or more variables

Falsifiability

- the core rule that a theory must make specific predictions that can be proven wrong by observation or tests

Operational definitions

- a precise, measurable description of an abstract concept or variable used in a study

Replication and Peer review

- Replication is the process of repeating a psychological study with new participants or conditions to see if the original results happen again. Peer review is when independent experts check a study for errors and quality before a scientific journal publishes it

Ethical guidelines

- the rules and principles that protect the rights, safety, and dignity of people and animals in research or treatment

Institutional review board (for human and non-human research)

- the evaluation of a research study by an Institutional Review Board (IRB)

Informed consent

- the ethical rule that research participants must receive enough information about a study's purpose, methods, and risks to freely decide whether to take part

Informed assent

- a minor's or non-legally competent person's agreement to participate in a study after receiving an age-appropriate explanation.

Protection from harm

- It requires researchers to make sure participants are safe from physical and mental pain or damage during a study.

Confidentiality of participants

- an ethical rule requiring researchers to keep all personal information and data collected from participants private and secure

Minimal deception

- misleading study participants only a tiny bit, and only when completely needed

Confederates

- an actor or assistant working for a researcher who pretends to be a regular participant

Debriefing

- the post-experimental ethical requirement where researchers explain the true purpose, goals, and procedures of a study to participants

Central tendency (mean, median, mode)

- a descriptive statistic that identifies the single, typical score that best represents the center of a data set

Measures of variation (range and interpret standard deviation)

- descriptive statistics that show how spread out or diverse a set of scores is

Normal curve (percentages and percentiles)

- a symmetrical, bell-shaped frequency graph where most data points cluster around the central average and fewer scores lie at the extremes

Positive and negative skews

- A positive skew means the tail points to the right (many low scores, like a hard test), while a negative skew means the tail points to the left (many high scores, like an easy test)

Bimodal distributions

- a frequency distribution or graph that features two distinct peaks or modes

Regression toward the mean

- he statistical tendency for extreme scores or behaviors to be followed by subsequent measurements that are closer to the group's average (the mean)

Statistical significance

- a mathematical statement about how likely it is that a study's results happened by random chance alone

Effect sizes

- a numerical measure that tells you the strength or magnitude of the difference between groups or the relationship between variables.

Cognitive biases (confirmation bias, hindsight bias, overconfidence)

- a systematic, predictable error in thinking and decision-making

Nature and nurture

- nature means the genetic traits and biology you inherit from your parents. Nurture means your environmental experiences, such as your parenting, culture, and schooling

Genetic predisposition

- an inherited increased susceptibility or likelihood to develop a specific physical trait, behavior, or psychological disorder

Seven Perspectives

- different theoretical lenses or viewpoints used to analyze and explain human behavior and mental processes.

Eugenics

- the discredited pseudo-scientific movement aimed at improving the human population through controlled selective breeding

Twin studies

- a research method used by behavior geneticists to compare the similarities of identical (monozygotic) twins and fraternal (dizygotic) twins