✭ COVALENT SUBSTANCES

Covalent Bonding

Bonds formed between non-metals by sharing electrons to achieve a stable octet.

Lewis Structures

Diagrams showing the arrangement of atoms and lone pairs in a molecule.

VSEPR Theory

Describes how electron pairs in molecules repel each other, influencing molecular shape.

Polarity

Classification of bonds as polar (different electronegativities) or nonpolar (same element).

Intermolecular Forces

Forces between molecules, including dispersion, dipole-dipole, and hydrogen bonding.

Melting/Boiling Points

Properties influenced by intermolecular forces; covalent molecules have low melting/boiling points.

Strength of Intermolecular Forces

Depends on factors like number of electrons and molecular shape.

Metallic Melting

Requires overcoming strong metallic bonding, needing a lot of energy.

Ionic Melting

Requires overcoming strong ionic bonding, needing a lot of energy.

Covalent Molecular Melting

Requires overcoming weak intermolecular forces, needing less energy.