Chapter 12 - Emotional and Motivated Behavior

How do hormones cause sex differences?

They organize the brain during development and activate sex-specific behaviors in adulthood.

What are key behavioral sex differences?

Females show verbal fluency advantages; males show spatial navigation advantages.

Can brains be classified as strictly male/female?

No - ~25% show androgynous features (Yi Zhang's rsMRI studies).

What four developmental processes create sex differences?

Neurogenesis, cell migration, cell death, and neural circuit differentiation.

How does estradiol masculinize brains?

Aromatase converts testosterone to estradiol which shapes male neural circuits.

What is androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS)?

XY individuals produce but can't respond to androgens, developing female phenotypes.

What is congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)?

XX females exposed to excess androgens prenatally may develop intersex traits.

How does estrogen affect rat hippocampal neurons?

High estrogen increases dendritic spines during estrous cycles.

Which brain areas control female sexual behavior?

Ventromedial hypothalamus controls lordosis posture.

Which areas control male sexual behavior?

Preoptic area (copulation) and amygdala (motivation).

What determines sexual orientation?

Prenatal genetic/epigenetic factors; hypothalamic structure differs in gay/heterosexual males.

What brain differences occur in transgender individuals?

Altered self-body perception networks (default mode network).

What are tertiary chemosignals?

Chemicals produced by animals that convey information about the individual's health or reproductive status.

How do chemosignals influence social behaviors?

They can affect mating behaviors, aggression, and social bonding.

What role do chemosignals play in maternal bonding?

Mothers can recognize their offspring by olfactory signatures.

How can pheromones affect menstrual cycles?

They can synchronize menstrual cycles among women living closely together.

What is the role of taste in survival?

Taste helps avoid harmful substances and identify nutritious foods.

What are some environmental factors that can alter taste perception?

Temperature, consistency, and even mood can influence taste responses.

What is the significance of umami taste?

Umami indicates the presence of amino acids, essential for protein intake.

Why are some people more sensitive to bitter tastes?

Genetic variations can lead to heightened sensitivity to bitter receptors.

What is the hypothalamus's role in taste and appetite?

It integrates taste signals to regulate hunger and feeding behavior.

How can conditioned taste aversion occur?

If a specific taste is paired with illness, individuals may avoid that taste in the future.

What is the role of the hypothalamus in hunger regulation?

It integrates signals from the body and regulates hunger and satiety responses.

How do stress hormones affect eating?

Cortisol can increase appetite and cravings for high-calorie foods during stress.

What is the role of the nucleus of the solitary tract?

It processes taste information and is involved in regulating food intake.

How do environmental cues influence eating behavior?

External cues like portion size and availability can trigger eating, regardless of hunger.

What is mindful eating?

Practicing awareness while eating to improve food choices and reduce binge eating.

What are some physiological cues for hunger?

Stomach contractions, low blood sugar, and ghrelin release signal hunger.

What is the role of the prefrontal cortex in eating?

It helps control impulse and make decisions regarding food choices.

How does sleep affect appetite regulation?

Insufficient sleep can disrupt hunger hormones, increasing appetite and cravings.

What is the impact of social influences on eating?

Eating with others can increase portion size and food intake, known as social facilitation.

What is the role of adipose tissue in hunger signaling?

Adipose tissue releases hormones like leptin that regulate energy balance and appetite.

What triggers osmotic thirst?

An increase in solute concentration in the blood, such as after consuming salty foods.

What physiological responses occur during hypovolemic thirst?

Increased heart rate and thirst sensation due to reduced blood volume.

What is the role of angiotensin II in thirst regulation?

Angiotensin II stimulates the hypothalamus to increase thirst and fluid intake.

How does dehydration affect kidney function?

Kidneys conserve water by concentrating urine and reducing urine output.

What is the function of the thirst center in the brain?

Located in the hypothalamus, it regulates the sensation of thirst based on fluid balance.

What factors can affect thirst perception?

Age, medications, and hormonal changes can alter thirst sensation.

What role do electrolytes play in thirst?

Electrolyte balance influences thirst, with imbalances increasing thirst sensation.

How does the hypothalamus detect changes in blood volume?

It uses osmoreceptors and baroreceptors to monitor solute and pressure changes.

What can excessive thirst indicate medically?

It can be a sign of conditions like diabetes insipidus or diabetes mellitus.

How does fluid intake affect blood pressure?

Increased fluid intake helps restore blood volume and normalize blood pressure.

What are basic emotions according to Paul Ekman?

Happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, and disgust are universal emotional expressions.

How do emotions influence decision-making?

Emotions can impact risk assessment and motivate choices during decision-making processes.

What is the role of the insula in emotion?

The insula integrates emotional experiences and bodily states, influencing perceptions of emotion.

What is the relationship between emotion and memory?

Emotions enhance the encoding and retrieval of memories, making emotional events more memorable.

How do cultural factors influence emotions?

Cultural norms shape how emotions are expressed and interpreted across different societies.

What is the difference between primary and secondary emotions?

Primary emotions are immediate and instinctive, while secondary emotions are complex reactions based on feelings.

How does the hypothalamus relate to emotion regulation?

The hypothalamus modulates hormonal responses linked to emotional states, affecting physiological responses.

What role does nonverbal communication play in expressing emotions?

Nonverbal cues, like facial expressions and body language, convey emotions and support social interaction.

How do hormones influence emotional responses?

Hormones like cortisol and adrenaline can amplify emotional reactions, particularly during stress.

What is the significance of emotional intelligence?

Emotional intelligence is the ability to recognize, understand, and manage emotions in oneself and others, impacting interpersonal relationships.

What triggers osmotic thirst signals?

Increased extracellular fluid osmolarity detected by osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus.

What is the physiological response to hypovolemic thirst?

Increased thirst and secretion of vasopressin to conserve water and sodium.

How does dehydration impact kidney function?

Kidneys filter more concentrated urine to retain water during dehydration.

What are the risks associated with water intoxication?

Cells swell due to electrolyte imbalances, potentially leading to brain swelling and seizures.

How do the kidneys minimize water loss in marine mammals?

They adapt to produce highly concentrated urine to reduce water loss.

What triggers the release of vasopressin (ADH)?

Increased osmotic pressure or reduced blood volume signals hypothalamic release of ADH.

What is the role of the ventromedial hypothalamus in thirst?

It helps to regulate fluid balance and satiety signals related to thirst.

What is the significance of the thirst drive in survival?

It prompts water-seeking behavior essential for hydration and physiological homeostasis.

What is the relationship between thirst and salivation?

Thirst activation prompts salivation, preparing the digestive system for fluid intake.

What effects does chronic stress have on thirst regulation?

Chronic stress may alter thirst perception and lead to dehydration or overhydration.