Psyc 365: lec 6

What is the #1 preventable cause of death and disease in Canada?

Smoking

What percentage of males aged 15 and older in Canada continue to smoke?

16.7%

What percentage of females aged 15 and older in Canada continue to smoke?

13.5%

What was the smoking rate among youth aged 15 to 19 in Canada in 2017?

7.9%

Which demographic groups have higher smoking rates?

People with low socioeconomic status, people at a lower level of education, and men more than women.

Which three countries currently have the most smokers?

China, India, and Indonesia.

Why do people smoke?

Adolescents started to smoke dur to people around them doing the same behaviour. Ex, family, friends, parents.

What are Factors related to teen smoking?

(1) Parental modelling- In Canada, over 75 percent of youth who smoke daily report having at least one parent or guardian who smokes (Cole et al., 2013).

(2) Peer influence

(3) Prevalence of cigarettes onscreen

(4) Personal characteristics ex. risk taker, low self-esteem, etc.

Different people smoke for different reasons (Tomkins, 1966, 1968)

1. Positive-affect smoker

2. Negative-affect smoker

3. Habitual smoker

4. Addictive smoker

What is a positive-affect smoker?

A smoker who smokes to attain positive affect, such as increased stimulation, relaxation, or gratification of sensorimotor needs.

What is a negative-affect smoker?

A smoker who smokes to reduce negative affect, such as anxiety, distress, fear, or guilt.

What is a habitual smoker?

A smoker who smokes without awareness of why they are doing so, and does not derive any benefits from smoking.

What characterizes an addictive smoker?

A smoker who develops a psychological dependence on smoking and feels something is amiss when not smoking, often prioritizing the first cigarette of the day.

Explanation by researchers on smoking and heredity?

1. genetics: may underlie certain personality traits associated with smoking (e.g., rebelliousness).

2. heredity: may determine the extent to which people find tobacco pleasant or unpleasant.

3. peer influence: genetically based differences in reaction to nicotine influence the degree to which people exposed to nicotine become dependent on it.

What do some genes do in relation to smoking?

Some genes restrict the breakdown of certain chemicals found in smoke, leading to a greater amount of those chemicals remaining in the bloodstream.

What happens to people who smoke regularly?

They become physiologically dependent on nicotine.

How does nicotine enter the bloodstream when smoking a cigarette?

Nicotine passes through cell membranes in the mouth and nose, then is absorbed by the alveoli in the lungs and carried to the blood.

How quickly does nicotine reach the brain after inhalation?

Nicotine reaches the brain in approximately 10 seconds.

What effect does nicotine have on the brain?

Nicotine triggers the release of various chemicals that activate the central and sympathetic nervous systems, increasing heart rate and blood pressure.

Health Consequences of Smoking: stats

Reduced life expectancy by 10-14 years and increased risk of many illnesses:

Cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disease (women more than men)

Cancer

chronic lower respiratory disease- rare in non-smokers.

High blood pressure

High cholesterol

Gum disease

Pneumonia

Emphysema (lung condition)

sleeping issues

osteoporosis

cataracts

Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS)

smoke that is in the air we breathe because of others' smoking. Second hand smoke.

Can lead to cancer/cardiovascular disease

Second-hand smoke is the number one risk factor for lung cancer among non-smokers, and 15 percent of those who die from lung cancer are non-smokers (Lung Cancer Canada, 2013).

What are Vaping and E-Cigarettes

3 Harmful effects on cardiovascular system ?

1. Nicotine

2. Concentration of particulate matter/metals: Particulates from vaping are smaller than from conventional cigarettes, resulting in deeper penetration of those small particles into the lungs.

3. Flavours/solvents

May be less harmful than regular cigarettes.

Quitting Smoking stats

63% of Canadians who smoked have successfully quit.

Only about 12 percent of attempt to quit by 15- to 19-year-olds are successful. However, success rates increase with age, and those 45 years and older have a success rate of 70 percent (Reid et al., 2013).

Smoking is an addiction (physically or psychologically dependent). Quitting brings unpleasant withdrawal symptoms

What are the Various ways to quit smoking?

1. On your own:

Stop-smoking medication

Reduce number of cigarettes

E-cigarettes

Self-management strategies

2. therapy (more effective):

Nicotine replacement therapy, Aversion therapy:

What is aversion therapy?

A therapy that includes pairing the behavior that one is attempting to eliminate with an unpleasant stimulus.

What is an example of aversion therapy?

Pairing the craving for a cigarette with snapping an elastic band around your wrist.

What is a more extreme example of aversion therapy?

Using electric shock to elicit negative sensations associated with an undesired behavior.

Nicotine replacement therapy

A stop-smoking technique that provides some form of nicotine to replace that previously obtained through smoking. Ex. gum

Substance Abuse: Alcohol Use: stats

78% of Canadians have consumed alcohol in the past 12 months (Canadian Centre on Substance Abuse Canada, 2021)

Past practice is for women to be more likely than men to be non-drinkers (14 percent versus 9 percent). Men are more likely than women to report drinking alcohol at least once a week (55 percent versus 33 percent).

What are the low-risk guide- lines fro alcohol use?

The current guidelines, put forth by the CCSA (2018), state that men should limit their weekly alcohol intake to no more than 15 standard drinks and women to no more than 10 standard drinks.

However, women should have no more than two drinks a day most days and men should have no more than three.

Ethanol or ethyl alcohol

In beverages is a depressant. It slows down the nervous system, which may cause drowsiness, induce sleep, or relieve pain.

Excessive use of alcohol - adverse effects on whole body

Moderate use of alcohol - health benefits

What can mixing alcohol with sugar and caffeine do?

It can be dangerous as the sugar masks the taste of alcohol and creates drowsiness.

How can mixing alcohol with sugar and caffeine affect a person's perception of intoxication?

It can cause someone to underestimate their degree of intoxication and impairment.

Is it legal to include caffeine in a pre-mixed alcoholic drink?

No, it is illegal to include caffeine in a pre-mixed drink.

How does consuming alcohol mixed with energy drinks compare to consuming alcohol alone?

Those who consumed alcohol mixed with energy drinks were more likely to leave a bar highly intoxicated.

Effects of Alcohol

To oneself: Liver disease, damage to organs, high blood pressure, depression of immune system, blackouts.

To others: Violence and accidents

Fetal Alcohol Spectrum disorder (FADS)

Fetal Alcohol Spectrum disorder (FADS)

the name used to describe the range of disabilities caused by prenatal exposure to alcohol; these effects are permanent.

Theories explaining drinking problems

1. Disease model

2. Alcohol dependency syndrome model

3. Cognitive-physiological models: Tension reduction hypothesis, Stress Response Dampening Effect

4. Self-awareness model

5. Alcohol myopia model

6. Social learning model

Disease model

a theory suggesting that alcoholism is a disease resulting from the physical properties of alcohol. Jellinek (1960), a pioneer in the field of alcoholism, described a number of different types of alcoholism. gamma alcoholism: loss of control once drinking begins. delta alcoholism: the inability to abstain from alcohol.

Alcohol dependency syndrome model

suggesting that for a variety of reasons people do not exercise control over their drinking, and this leads to problem drinking. A number of elements are said to be essential for alcohol dependency syndrome to develop, including a salience of drink-seeking behaviour (meaning that drinking begins to take priority over all other aspects of life) and an increased tolerance for alcohol.

Cognitive-physiological models

propose that people drink because alcohol influences cognitive functioning, allowing people to escape tension and negative self-evaluations. includes: Tension reduction hypothesis, Stress Response Dampening Effect

Tension reduction hypothesis

that people drink alcohol because of its tension-reducing properties.

Stress Response Dampening Effect:

states that people who have been drinking do not respond as strongly psychologically or physiologically to stressors. The stress response dampening effect appears in some drinkers, but not in others. Those who do exhibit the effect are more likely to become problem drinkers

Self-awareness model

the theory that drinking makes people less self-aware because it inhibits the use of normal, complex information- processing strategies, such as memory and information acquisition.

Alcohol myopia model

a drinker's decreased ability to engage in insightful cognitive processing.

Social learning model

this theory, when applied to drinking behaviour, proposes that people drink because they experience positive reinforcement for doing so or because they observe others drinking and model the behaviour. an explain why people begin to drink, why they continue to drink in moderation, and why some people drink to excess. Excessive drinking may occur because of modelling.

Preventing and Treating Alcohol Abuse

Prevention through age restrictions, education and health promotion.

Treatment Majority stop drinking without treatment 12 step programs such as AA Psychotherapy, drug therapy, aversion therapy Relapse remains a problem

Stages of Change Model

Pre-contemplation

Contemplation

Preparation

Action

Maintenance

Relapse

Drinking and Driving

Rates have been decreasing in Canada since the 1980's Small decline since 2000

Alcohol causes people to think less negatively about drinking and driving

Substance Abuse: Illicit Drug Use

Relatively few people die from effects, But use of illicit drugs is higher than ever.

Cannabis (marijuana)

LSD, PCP, and MDMA (hallucinogens)

Cocaine (stimulant)

Prescription drugs

Preventing Illicit Drug Use

programs aimed at youth

1. Education through schools, mass media

2. Laws limiting access to drugs

3. Parental monitoring

Treating Illicit Drug Use

Programs:

Cognitive & behavioural methods = best

High relapse rates but programs include follow-up and "booster" sessions

Unsafe Sexual Behaviours

1. Failure to use a condom

2. Information-motivation-behavioural skills model: a theory maintaining that there are a number of steps one must go through to successfully achieve safe-sex practices.

Several steps to achieve safe sex practices:

1. they must recognize and accept that they are sexually active.

2. they must create a "sexual and reproductive health agenda." In other words, individuals must be motivated to engage in safe-sex practices to prevent pregnancy and infection.

3. individuals must be capable of engaging in behaviours that fulfil this agenda.

4. individuals must be able to adjust sexual and reproductive health behaviour scripts appropriately as their needs change over time.

Obesity stats

top 10 global health problems (BMI) As BMI increases the risk of early mortality increases

Measured by body-mass index.

Physical, emotional and economic burden Premature death associated with obesity: hypertension, type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, lung disease, cancer, gallbladder disease

Obesity

refers to an excess of body fat that may impair health (WHO, 2021c). Obesity is defined as a BMI of 30.0 or greater.

Biological Factors in Obesity

1. Heredity: Genes contribute to the development of obesity and to substantial variance in BMI

2. Hormones and the brain: Food intake and energy expenditure are not well-understood. Set-point theory

Set-point theory

body pushes us to our natural target weight using leptin. The idea that the body contains a set-point that works like a thermostat; when a person gains weight, biological control mechanisms diminish caloric intake; when a person loses weight, similar mechanisms increase hunger levels until the weight returns to its ideal or target level.

- Leptin: a hormone that responds to weight loss by increasing hunger levels until the person's weight returns to its ideal or target level.

Psychosocial and Sociocultural Factors in Obesity

Social norms and values can reinforce behaviours that promote obesity.

-Stress can lead people to eat certain foods, and eat more or less than usual.

-People around us influence eating and activity habits (e.g., wealth, parents)

Internality-externality hypothesis: Weight linked to source of hunger and satiety cues (e.g., external or internal)

Sociocultural Factors that Contribute to Obesity: Environmental and Hunger Cues

1. Social facilitation approach

2. Modelling or matching effect

3. Impression management approach

4. internality-externality hypothesis

5. restraint theory

Social facilitation approach

states that people tend to eat more when in the presence of others

Modelling or matching effect

people tend to eat the same amount as those in their presence.

Impression management approach

when people believe they are being observed, they will eat less than when they believe no one is watching.

internality-externality hypothesis

The assertion that in people of normal weight, feelings of hunger and satiety come from within, in the form of internal stimuli (e.g., hunger pangs or feelings of fullness), whereas obese people are more likely to determine their level of hunger in response to external stimuli (e.g., time of day, smell, or sight of food).

Alcohol dependency syndrome model

Prevention of Obesity

Through education:

1. Public education campaigns

2. Health care professionals knowing how to treat obese people & facilitate change

Treatments for Obesity

Dieting = most common but weight loss through is usually not maintained

Need permanent lifestyle change

Pharmacological treatment

Behavioural treatment

Surgical treatment: Radical method gastric bypass or gastric banding

Eating disorders

1. Bulimia nervosa

2. Anorexia nervosa

3. binge eating disorder (BED)

restraint theory

an explanation for eating behaviour claiming that external sensitivity is linked to restrained eating (or strict dieting) rather than to body weight, and that overeating is more likely in people who restrain their eating.

Anorexia nervosa

dramatic food intake decrease, weight decrease, exercise increase. Most common in white teenage girls Leads to low B P, heart damage

binge eating disorder (BED)

compulsive overeating or bingeing; unlike bulimia nervosa, BED uses no compensatory measure or purge to counteract the binge.

Biological, Cultural, and Psychological Contributors to eating disorders

Biological: genes, neuroendocrine problems

Social: media's focus on "perfect" body

Psychological: control, self-esteem, perfectionism, distorted body image

Body dysmorphic disorder

inaccurate perception of one's body

muscle dysmorphia

a condition characterized by a belief that one's body is not sufficiently lean and muscular; clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other areas of functioning; and a primary focus on being too small or inadequately muscular.

What can untreated eating disorders lead to?

Death

What type of therapy attempts to eradicate irrational beliefs in eating disorder patients?

Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)

What are the treatment goals for Anorexia?

Restore weight, change eating habits, change body image

Why is Bulimia considered easier to treat than Anorexia?

Patients are aware of their problem

What are the treatment goals for Bulimia?

Change binge-purge cycle, CBT, drugs

Bulimia nervosa

Recurrent episodes of binge eating and vomiting and/or laxative use People of normal weight, often impulsive