Applied ethics

Embryo research

• Embryo research is the use of embryos in scientific research.

• In the UK it is regulated by the HFEA which allows embryo research for the purposes of increasing knowledge about the development of embryos, serious disease, and the use of this knowledge in developing treatments.

• Only spare embryos may be used

• Not allowed after 14 days

Cloning

There are two types of human cloning:

• Therapeutic cloning - cloning human cells for use in medicine and transplants

• Reproductive cloning - cloning entire organisms, e.g. making one human that is genetically identical to another

• Successful reproductive cloning was achieved with Dolly the Sheep, the first cloned animal

• Cloning has led to improvements in fertility treatments and opens up the possibility of cloning endangered animals

Designer babies

• A baby whose genetic makeup has been selected or altered

• Prevents/ removes a genetic disease

• Other potential uses would be altering physical characteristics, IQ or abilities including removing disabilities (currently illegal)

Virtue ethics applied to embryo research, cloning and designer babies

• Would focus on what virtue can be developed/shown by all concerned e.g. doctors increasing their intellectual virtues through scientific exploration, but also may fall into vices of over-ambition e.g. by pursuing reproductive cloning.

• Can also develop moral virtue - e.g. courage and perseverance in taking risks and making sacrifices.

• May consider how designer babies could be used to select for characteristics which might make someone more likely to become a sophron.

• By using stem cells to treat and cure diseases which causes serious harm to individuals, eudaimonia would be achieved. Eg giving back the use of limbs to a paralysed person would serve the purpose of eudaimonia, and therefore fulfil the purpose of virtue ethics

• However, excessive experimentation on embryos could be seen as showing a lack of temperance and therefore not being within the golden mean.

Nml applied to embryo research, cloning and designer babies

• Generally against as these all involve the use of embryo, and the death of unwanted/used embryos, which violates Preservation of Life/Reproduction.

• It may also raise concern about the effects of designer babies on an ordered society.

• Proportionalists may argue that the proportional good (e.g. curing diseases) could justify this. (This may be difficult though due to the number of embryos used - not proportionate.)

Situation ethics applied to embryo research, cloning and designer babies

• Relativism rejects absolutes so would say that it is justifiable in some situations but not others. Fletcher believed that no family should be burdened with an “idiot” (Down’s Syndrome child) and could justify designer babies on these grounds.

• Argues agape could be used to served by improving quality of life for those who would’ve otherwise struggled with genetic conditions

• Pragmatism requires that our actions work in practice so would also depend on how effective the medical technology is.

• Situation Ethicists are called on to make decisions situationally and not prescriptively, there may well be times when cloning technology will present a problem that requires responding by discouraging it.

Abortion

• The deliberate ending of life after fertilisation and before birth.

• Abortion has been legal in the UK since the 1960s with the permission of two doctors but can only be carried out until 24 weeks and for reasons such as: risk to life of mother; risk to physical/mental health of mother; risk to physical/mental health of any existing children of the mother and risk of child being born with serious disability

• Pro-choicers argue that abortion should be allowed on the grounds of women’s bodily autonomy.

• Pro-lifers argue that abortion should be prohibited on the grounds of the rights of the foetus.

Virtue ethics applied to abortion

• Difficult apply as it was not an issue in Aristotle’s time and some of the virtues are ambiguous e.g. is it braver to have an abortion or start a family? Would involve careful use of intellectual virtue - particularly practical wisdom (phronesis)

• Aristotle argued parents should not have more children than they are capable of caring for

• Other virtues, such as truthfulness, could be important – e.g. informing other relevant parties before making a decision.

• A problem with applying Virtue Ethics is that Aristotle did not write as extensively about women as moral decision-makers.

Nml applied to abortion

• Very clear in prohibiting abortion. The Doctrine of Double Effect classes all abortion as breaking a primary precept in its exterior act.

• However, removal of the fallopian tube in the case of ectopic pregnancy, which results in the unintended death of the foetus, could be allowed.

• Proportionalists may allow more cases of abortion where the mother’s life is at risk.

Situation ethics applied to abortion

• Would argue due to relativism that abortion is appropriate in some situations but not others.

• Fletcher gives the example of a schizophrenic woman raped by a fellow patient in a mental hospital but denied an abortion.

• Fletcher would reject strict abortion laws as a form of legalism, and advocated use of abortion as a way to prevent “subhuman” children being born with Down’s Syndrome.

Voluntary euthanasia and assisted suicide

• Voluntary euthanasia is the ending of a person’s life directly caused by another person on request. Generally, this will be because someone has a life-threatening illness and wishes to end their life on their own terms.

• Assisted suicide is when another person helps an individual end their life (less direct than voluntary Euthanasia). Again, this is generally due to life threatening conditions but not always.

• Both are illegal in the UK, carrying a 14 year jail sentence. However doctors may enact passive euthanasia by switching off life support machines

Moral issues surrounding voluntary euthanasia and voluntary suicide

• Finding a rule that fits the range of cases - e.g. 94 year old on fourth heart attack vs twenty year-old paralysed motorcyclist

• Whether there is a moral distinction between killing and letting die. If not then euthanasia would be allowed.

• Whether there can be a 'Right to Die'; whether or not sanctity of life applies to the dying

Virtue ethics applied to voluntary euthanasia and assisted suicide

• Friendliness for Aristotle is an important virtue so a friend may assist in suicide out of compassion.

• However, there is an issue as to how bravery is applied since Aristotle considered suicide a cowardly act.

• There is also the question of whether it is possible to achieve Eudaimonia with, for example, a brain tumour that makes it impossible to use the intellectual virtues.

• A thing is only good if it performs its function, so a doctor who performs an act of euthanasia is not performing in line with their purpose

Nml applied to voluntary euthanasia and assisted suicide

• Rejects Euthanasia as a violation of Preservation of Life.

• Worship of God means accepting his gift of life gladly and not rejecting it

• Any act of direct killing violates the Doctrine of Double Effect, however inadvertently causing death through the use of morphine as pain relief would technically pass the Doctrine of Double Effect.

Situation ethics applied to voluntary euthanasia and assisted suicide

• Fletcher gives the example of a terminally ill man who could stay alive longer but, with the cost of treatment and insurance, would leave his family with no money at all, so chooses euthanasia. Fletcher sees this as an example of agape.

• However, many other considerations are important such as pragmatism, e.g. how likely is a cure to be found while the patient is alive?

• Fletcher argued that the most loving thing to do for an individual who is experiencing extreme suffering is to allow them to die in the way they wish to and to end their suffering

Capital punishment

• Capital punishment refers to the death penalty

• Range of methods including lethal injection, hanging, and beheading.

• Four main aims of punishment: rehabilitation, retribution, deterrence, and protection of the public.

• Capital punishment certainly covers retribution (essentially, justice for the victim) and protection of the public. Some say it is an effective deterrent as it puts people off crime, however the statistics do not entirely support this. One thing it certainly does not seek to do is rehabilitate criminals.

Moral issues surrounding capital punishment

• Whether it is actually an effective deterrent (data does not support this)

• Whether it can be justified if the punishment fits the crime (e.g. serial killers)

• What to do about individuals who undergo reform (e.g. Stanley Tookie Williams)

• Whether the state has a right to take life

Virtue ethics applied to capital punishment

• Aristotle does not debate it since it was such common practice in his time, but virtues can be applied

• Aristotle recognises righteous anger as a virtue and therefore this could justify retribution against violent criminals.

• Justice is also important in Aristotle and if the offence is bad enough this may put capital punishment in the golden mean.

• Modern virtue ethicists may question whether certain virtues such as mercy and compassion are missing from Aristotle’s list.

Nml applied to capital punishment

• Despite capital punishment going against Preservation of Life at face value, NML allows it for the reason that the state is justified in executing someone who is harming the community, in the same way a violent beast could be killed (Ordered Society).

• Defence of the Innocent does not apply as the accused is not innocent

• Rules out the possibility of learning through rehabilitation

Situation ethics applied to capital punishment

• Situation Ethics would say that although it is generally loving not to kill, there might be situations in which the opposite is loving.

• Can be argued that it could never be in the service of agape to take someone’s life - even if they have committed a heinous crime. Instead, forgiveness and rehabilitation should be offered. This is keeping with the emphasis on forgiveness within the teachings of Jesus

• It may also be pragmatic to use capital punishment as a deterrent.

• Fletcher says that justice is love distributed, so there is never a question of justice and love being at odds.

• Perhaps if it is recognised that an individual is not open to rehabilitation, compassionately ending their life may be a better alternative to locking them up.

Intensive farming

• Refers to the factory farming of animals

• Most intensively farmed animals live in crowded and filthy conditions, going through painful procedures such as de-beaking and tail-cutting, generally without anaesthetic.

Virtue ethics applied to intensive farming

• Aristotle does not object to the use of animals as food and his hierarchy of souls shows he believes humans to have greater potential than animals

• However, farming in Aristotle’s time was not intensive and he may question whether the barbaric conditions of factory farms would help anyone form a good moral character, e.g. grinding up male chicks alive is unlikely to teach someone generosity or compassion

• The wastefulness of the meat industry could be seen as a vice of excess; maybe meat eating is a middle way but intensive farming is excessive

Nml applied to intensive farming

• Not seen as a concern because Aquinas says man has a right to use animals for his own needs.

• Aquinas says that it is as natural for humans to eat animals as it is for animals to eat plants, and that if a man kills another man’s ox, the crime is imply property theft.

• However, the effect of intensive farming on ordered societies (e.g. CO2 emissions, antibiotic resistance) could be an issue.

Situation ethics applied to intensive farming

• Difficult to apply due to ambiguities around the principle of personalism - we assume Fletcher means humans because he does not write about animals, but Situationism could be used in a wider sense.

• Fletcher would also approach through pragmatism, e.g. cattle consume so much grain that decreasing meat production might lead to a positive increase in other crops - but some livestock still required for manure!

Scientific procedures/ cloning

• Scientific procedures may involve use of animals to develop drugs and medicines, and as test-subjects for new therapies.

• Cloning animals, as in the case of Dolly the Sheep can have a number of applications, such as preserving endangered species, making animals disease-resistant, or increasing the meat or fur yield.

Virtue ethics applied to the use of animals in scientific procedures and cloning

• Learning about medical conditions from animals could be seen as a good use of intellectual virtue, which separates us from animals.

• Traditionally virtues such as justice, generosity, friendliness etc. are seen to refer to the relationships between humans.

• However, a modern virtue ethicist may argue these also apply to our relationships with animals.

Nml applied to the use of animals in scientific procedures and cloning

• Would not generally take issue; the Catholic Church (through the teachings of Aquinas) supports animal testing.

• However anything too extreme (e.g. producing animal/human hybrids) may be seen as against the Worship of God.

Situation ethics applied to the use of animals in scientific procedures and cloning

• Would recognise the practical benefits e.g. HIV/AIDs treatments from chickens/cats/monkeys.

• Fletcher himself was involved in cloning research and advocated the use of animals in scientific procedures.

• Could apply the fundamental principle that the end justifies the means, but it could be argued that the ways animals are disposed of after testing (e.g. rats decapitated with scissors) are not loving.

Blood sports

Blood sports is a term used to refer to sports that involve animal bloodshed, including hunting, fishing, bull-fighting, and goose-pulling, done for the entertainment of those who participate.

Moral issues surrounding blood sports

• Cultural relativism - many blood sports are central to cultures (e.g. bullfighting in Spain)

• Unnecessary harm and death to animals

• Danger to those taking part

• Psychological impact on spectators

Virtue ethics applied to blood sports

• Aristotle offers no arguments against, and many Ancient Greeks liked to hunt animals, however it could be argued that virtues should be adapted to reflect changes in social attitudes e.g. fox hunting bans.

• Limiting the killing of animals to cases where it is strictly necessary could be seen as temperance, and taking part in potentially dangerous sports could be seen as recklessness (though also possibly a chance to develop bravery).

Nml applied to blood sports

• Offers no major objections but Aquinas does raise the concern that a person who is cruel to animals “might go on to do the same to men”, highlighting the psychological impact

• Allowing violent tendencies to be encouraged could potentially threaten the harmonious nature of society, which would violate the primary precept of an ordered society

Situation ethics applied to blood sports

• Would apply relativism to look at the full range of cases.

• May be pragmatic in some cases e.g. to keep the fox population down and avoid the death of chickens due to foxes.

• The culture of blood sports does not tend to make people more loving and the resultant blood lust could be seen as unchristian. Equally, Fletcher may argue it is better to take this out on animals than human neighbours.

• In the interest of agape, there is very little that can be gained toward this end by blood sports

Animals as a source of organs for transplant

The technical term for the use of animals as a source for transplants is xenotransplantation. For example, the transplantation of genetically engineered pigs hearts as heart transplants for humans.

Moral issues surroundings animals as a source of organ transplant

• Death of animals

• Lack of alternatives

• Risk of disease transmission

Virtue ethics applied to the use of animals as a source of organ transplant

Many arguments in favour e.g. Aristotle’s approval of scientific research, focus on intellect and lower status of animals, though practical wisdom would also take account of the possible risks.

Nml applied to the use of animals as a source of organ transplant

Would approve the use of animals in human treatments on grounds of preservation of life, though the Catholic Church rejects any use of animals that permanently alters the human genome as a failure to worship God

Situation ethics applied to the use of animals as a source of organ transplant

Pragmatism may recognise practical concerns such as disease risk. Fletcher always starts with the question “Who is to be helped?” (Personalism) Even with the risk considered, it may be justifiable to take a leap of faith (positivism)