Ethics

Normative ethics

Ethical systems which are used to make moral decisions

Applied ethics

Normative theories applied to practical, real life moral issues

Deontological

Theory of ethics focused on absolute rules, duties of laws which must always be followed

Teleological

Theory of ethics focused on the achievement of particular outcomes valued as good

Character based

Theory of ethics focused on the development of a persons moral and intellectual character

Virtue ethics

• Character based

• Aristotle - ‘nicomachean ethics’

NML

• Deontological

• St Thomas aquinas - ‘summa theologica’

Situation ethics

• Teleological

• Joseph fletcher - ‘Situation Ethics: The New Morality (1966)’

• Middle way between legalism (fixed rules, e.g. NML) and antinomianism (no absolutes at all, e.g. Existentialism)

Absolutist

Theory of ethics which treat moral norms as fixed and objective regardless of other factors

Relativist

Theory of ethics which treat moral norms as flexible and subjective, depending on certain factors

Intrinsic good

A good that is valued and sought for its own safety

Instrumental good

Good that is valued and sought because it leads to the attainment of some greater goods

Eudaimonia

Happiness or flourishing that is only possible for rational people

Virtue

An acquired human quality which enables us to achieve those goods which are internal to practices and the lack of which effectively prevents us from achieving any such goods

Arête

Greek for virtue or excellence; the word used to refer to a thing carrying out its function/achieving its telos well - for humans this involves following the virtues

Enkrates

Follows the virtues but dislikes doing so and has to think about it intentionally

Moral virtues

• Courage

• Temperance

• Liberality

• Munificence

• High-mindedness

• Right ambition

• Good temper

• Friendliness

• Sincerity

• Wittiness

• Modesty

• Just resentment

Intellectual virtues

• Art/ technical skill

• Scientific knowledge

• Prudence

• Intelligence

• Wisdom

• Resourcefulness

• Understanding

• Judgement

• Cleverness

Cardinal virtues

• Justice

• Temperance

• Prudence

• Fortitude

Doctrine of the mean

• Vice of excess

• Vice of deficiency

• The virtue is the mean towards two vices

• The person who can judge the ‘mean’ for a virtue in any given situation is a ‘person of practical wisdom’ or a sophron

Synderesis

Innate moral consciousness - component of our practical reason ‘to do good and avoid evil’

Exterior and interior acts

• To act in a good way for the wrong reason is to perform a good exterior act but a bad interior act

• For aquinas, both of these need to be good in order did an act to be a real good

Primary precepts

• Worship god

• Ordered society

• Reproduction

• Learning

• Defend the innocent

  • These are turned into secondary precepts by conscientia

  • These precepts are made known to humans as they are, so everyone has a moral obligation to follow them - ‘revealed’ to human reason

Doctrine of the double effect

It is always wrong to do a bad act intentionally in order to bring about a good consequence. However, it is sometimes right to do a good act despite knowing that it will bring about unintended bad consequences.

Proportionalism - Bernard Hoose

• It is never right to go against certain moral rules unless there is a proportionate reason

• Due to the Fall we live in an imperfect world, therefore moral decisions are complicated and sometimes it is permissible to perform a bad act if it stops a worse evil.

Aquinas four levels of law

• Eternal Law (mind of God)

• Divine Law (revealed scripture)

• Natural Law (human reason)

• Human Law (law of society)

Agape

The highest form of love - unconditional universal love

The four working principles

• Relativism - avoids words like ‘never’ and ‘always’ as it depends on the situation

• Pragmatism - for a course of action to be right, it has to be practical, it must work

• Positivism - leads to a positive Christian outcome for this involved

• Personalism - puts people at the centre of concern and not things; it is immoral to love things and not people

6 fundamental principles

• “Only one thing is intrinsically good; namely love: nothing else”

• “The ruling norm of Christian decision making is love, nothing else”

• “Love and justice are the same, for justice is love distributed, nothing else”

• “Love wills the neighbours good, whether we like him or not”

• “Only the end justifies the means, nothing else”

• “Loves decisions are made situationally, not prescriptively”

Strengths of virtue ethics

• All our experiences are opportunities for developing virtues, more motivating to follow than a set of rules

• Adaptable theory as new virtues can be formulated to reflect the changes in society, many of Aristotle’s original virtues are still important today

• It reflects the way we actually make moral judgements. For example, people tend to prefer politicians who are respectable characters e.g. who show courage, honesty, compassion, and moral integrity to those who follow the rules but are weak characters.

Virtue ethics weaknesses

• People might have wrong motives but seem virtuous in their actions

• Theory is too flexible to solve the moral problems of specific issues, eg abortion

• Society needs clear rules to regulate the behaviour of its members, virtue doesn’t provide this

Natural moral law strengths

• All cultures can relate to basic principles of the primary precepts

• Clear to follow and explains how to navigate moral dilemmas through the DDE; this makes it useful for efficient decision making and not open to abuse/ exploitation

• Double effect provides a mechanism for dealing with some difficult situations. For those who find this too strict, proportionalism is an alternative that still fits most of the central teachings of NML.

• Aquinas improves Christian moral teaching by introducing the idea of human reason. This stops people just blindly following scripture and also allows that those from other religions or no religion are able to behave morally.

Natural moral law weaknesses

• Different moral standards in different cultures

• Legalistic and inflexible

• Aquinas argues that all human beings have awareness of the Primary Precepts, but it can be questioned whether the desire to worship God is really part of our nature

• DDE prioritises keeping your hands clean over making necessary decisions

Situation ethics strengths

• Gives personal responsibility for decisions

• Can be applied to new/ modern situations

• Pragmatism ensures that Situation Ethics is not simply a woolly/idealistic theory but actually works in practice

• Fletcher explains that atheists are able to follow the Christian ideal of agape without necessarily having committed religious belief.

Situation ethics weaknesses

• Fletcher assumes that the human race is morally mature enough for a completely relativistic theory, but it could be argued that we are more in need of rules and guidance than ever.

• There is a worry that 'love' is too vague a concept and could easily be exploited. This can be seen in some of Fletcher's own views, e.g. around children with Down's Syndrome or the use of nuclear weapons.

• Jesus condemned some actions as always wrong

• Many see Situation Ethics as open to exploitation - many people have done awful things in the name of love and need a stricter system of rules to guide them.

Embryo research

• Embryo research is the use of embryos in scientific research.

• In the UK it is regulated by the HFEA which allows embryo research for the purposes of increasing knowledge about the development of embryos, serious disease, and the use of this knowledge in developing treatments.

• Only spare embryos may be used

• Not allowed after 14 days

Cloning

There are two types of human cloning:

• Therapeutic cloning - cloning human cells for use in medicine and transplants

• Reproductive cloning - cloning entire organisms, e.g. making one human that is genetically identical to another

• Successful reproductive cloning was achieved with Dolly the Sheep, the first cloned animal

• Cloning has led to improvements in fertility treatments and opens up the possibility of cloning endangered animals

Designer babies

• A baby whose genetic makeup has been selected or altered

• Prevents/ removes a genetic disease

• Other potential uses would be altering physical characteristics, IQ or abilities including removing disabilities (currently illegal)

Virtue ethics applied to embryo research, cloning and designer babies

• Would focus on what virtue can be developed/shown by all concerned e.g. doctors increasing their intellectual virtues through scientific exploration, but also may fall into vices of over-ambition e.g. by pursuing reproductive cloning.

• Can also develop moral virtue - e.g. courage and perseverance in taking risks and making sacrifices.

• May consider how designer babies could be used to select for characteristics which might make someone more likely to become a sophron.

• By using stem cells to treat and cure diseases which causes serious harm to individuals, eudaimonia would be achieved. Eg giving back the use of limbs to a paralysed person would serve the purpose of eudaimonia, and therefore fulfil the purpose of virtue ethics

• However, excessive experimentation on embryos could be seen as showing a lack of temperance and therefore not being within the golden mean.

Nml applied to embryo research, cloning and designer babies

• Generally against as these all involve the use of embryo, and the death of unwanted/used embryos, which violates Preservation of Life/Reproduction.

• It may also raise concern about the effects of designer babies on an ordered society.

• Proportionalists may argue that the proportional good (e.g. curing diseases) could justify this. (This may be difficult though due to the number of embryos used - not proportionate.)

Situation ethics applied to embryo research, cloning and designer babies

• Relativism rejects absolutes so would say that it is justifiable in some situations but not others. Fletcher believed that no family should be burdened with an “idiot” (Down’s Syndrome child) and could justify designer babies on these grounds.

• Argues agape could be used to served by improving quality of life for those who would’ve otherwise struggled with genetic conditions

• Pragmatism requires that our actions work in practice so would also depend on how effective the medical technology is.

• Situation Ethicists are called on to make decisions situationally and not prescriptively, there may well be times when cloning technology will present a problem that requires responding by discouraging it.

Abortion

• The deliberate ending of life after fertilisation and before birth.

• Abortion has been legal in the UK since the 1960s with the permission of two doctors but can only be carried out until 24 weeks and for reasons such as: risk to life of mother; risk to physical/mental health of mother; risk to physical/mental health of any existing children of the mother and risk of child being born with serious disability

• Pro-choicers argue that abortion should be allowed on the grounds of women’s bodily autonomy.

• Pro-lifers argue that abortion should be prohibited on the grounds of the rights of the foetus.

Virtue ethics applied to abortion

• Difficult apply as it was not an issue in Aristotle’s time and some of the virtues are ambiguous e.g. is it braver to have an abortion or start a family? Would involve careful use of intellectual virtue - particularly practical wisdom (phronesis)

• Aristotle argued parents should not have more children than they are capable of caring for

• Other virtues, such as truthfulness, could be important – e.g. informing other relevant parties before making a decision.

• A problem with applying Virtue Ethics is that Aristotle did not write as extensively about women as moral decision-makers.

Nml applied to abortion

• Very clear in prohibiting abortion. The Doctrine of Double Effect classes all abortion as breaking a primary precept in its exterior act.

• However, removal of the fallopian tube in the case of ectopic pregnancy, which results in the unintended death of the foetus, could be allowed.

• Proportionalists may allow more cases of abortion where the mother’s life is at risk.

Situation ethics applied to abortion

• Would argue due to relativism that abortion is appropriate in some situations but not others.

• Fletcher gives the example of a schizophrenic woman raped by a fellow patient in a mental hospital but denied an abortion.

• Fletcher would reject strict abortion laws as a form of legalism, and advocated use of abortion as a way to prevent “subhuman” children being born with Down’s Syndrome.

Voluntary euthanasia and assisted suicide

• Voluntary euthanasia is the ending of a person’s life directly caused by another person on request. Generally, this will be because someone has a life-threatening illness and wishes to end their life on their own terms.

• Assisted suicide is when another person helps an individual end their life (less direct than voluntary Euthanasia). Again, this is generally due to life threatening conditions but not always.

• Both are illegal in the UK, carrying a 14 year jail sentence. However doctors may enact passive euthanasia by switching off life support machines

Moral issues surrounding voluntary euthanasia and voluntary suicide

• Finding a rule that fits the range of cases - e.g. 94 year old on fourth heart attack vs twenty year-old paralysed motorcyclist

• Whether there is a moral distinction between killing and letting die. If not then euthanasia would be allowed.

• Whether there can be a 'Right to Die'; whether or not sanctity of life applies to the dying

Virtue ethics applied to voluntary euthanasia and assisted suicide

• Friendliness for Aristotle is an important virtue so a friend may assist in suicide out of compassion.

• However, there is an issue as to how bravery is applied since Aristotle considered suicide a cowardly act.

• There is also the question of whether it is possible to achieve Eudaimonia with, for example, a brain tumour that makes it impossible to use the intellectual virtues.

• A thing is only good if it performs its function, so a doctor who performs an act of euthanasia is not performing in line with their purpose

Nml applied to voluntary euthanasia and assisted suicide

• Rejects Euthanasia as a violation of Preservation of Life.

• Worship of God means accepting his gift of life gladly and not rejecting it

• Any act of direct killing violates the Doctrine of Double Effect, however inadvertently causing death through the use of morphine as pain relief would technically pass the Doctrine of Double Effect.

Situation ethics applied to voluntary euthanasia and assisted suicide

• Fletcher gives the example of a terminally ill man who could stay alive longer but, with the cost of treatment and insurance, would leave his family with no money at all, so chooses euthanasia. Fletcher sees this as an example of agape.

• However, many other considerations are important such as pragmatism, e.g. how likely is a cure to be found while the patient is alive?

• Fletcher argued that the most loving thing to do for an individual who is experiencing extreme suffering is to allow them to die in the way they wish to and to end their suffering

Capital punishment

• Capital punishment refers to the death penalty

• Range of methods including lethal injection, hanging, and beheading.

• Four main aims of punishment: rehabilitation, retribution, deterrence, and protection of the public.

• Capital punishment certainly covers retribution (essentially, justice for the victim) and protection of the public. Some say it is an effective deterrent as it puts people off crime, however the statistics do not entirely support this. One thing it certainly does not seek to do is rehabilitate criminals.

Moral issues surrounding capital punishment

• Whether it is actually an effective deterrent (data does not support this)

• Whether it can be justified if the punishment fits the crime (e.g. serial killers)

• What to do about individuals who undergo reform (e.g. Stanley Tookie Williams)

• Whether the state has a right to take life

Virtue ethics applied to capital punishment

• Aristotle does not debate it since it was such common practice in his time, but virtues can be applied

• Aristotle recognises righteous anger as a virtue and therefore this could justify retribution against violent criminals.

• Justice is also important in Aristotle and if the offence is bad enough this may put capital punishment in the golden mean.

• Modern virtue ethicists may question whether certain virtues such as mercy and compassion are missing from Aristotle’s list.

Nml applied to capital punishment

• Despite capital punishment going against Preservation of Life at face value, NML allows it for the reason that the state is justified in executing someone who is harming the community, in the same way a violent beast could be killed (Ordered Society).

• Defence of the Innocent does not apply as the accused is not innocent

• Rules out the possibility of learning through rehabilitation

Situation ethics applied to capital punishment

• Situation Ethics would say that although it is generally loving not to kill, there might be situations in which the opposite is loving.

• Can be argued that it could never be in the service of agape to take someone’s life - even if they have committed a heinous crime. Instead, forgiveness and rehabilitation should be offered. This is keeping with the emphasis on forgiveness within the teachings of Jesus

• It may also be pragmatic to use capital punishment as a deterrent.

• Fletcher says that justice is love distributed, so there is never a question of justice and love being at odds.

• Perhaps if it is recognised that an individual is not open to rehabilitation, compassionately ending their life may be a better alternative to locking them up.

Intensive farming

• Refers to the factory farming of animals

• Most intensively farmed animals live in crowded and filthy conditions, going through painful procedures such as de-beaking and tail-cutting, generally without anaesthetic.

Virtue ethics applied to intensive farming

• Aristotle does not object to the use of animals as food and his hierarchy of souls shows he believes humans to have greater potential than animals

• However, farming in Aristotle’s time was not intensive and he may question whether the barbaric conditions of factory farms would help anyone form a good moral character, e.g. grinding up male chicks alive is unlikely to teach someone generosity or compassion

• The wastefulness of the meat industry could be seen as a vice of excess; maybe meat eating is a middle way but intensive farming is excessive

Nml applied to intensive farming

• Not seen as a concern because Aquinas says man has a right to use animals for his own needs.

• Aquinas says that it is as natural for humans to eat animals as it is for animals to eat plants, and that if a man kills another man’s ox, the crime is imply property theft.

• However, the effect of intensive farming on ordered societies (e.g. CO2 emissions, antibiotic resistance) could be an issue.

Situation ethics applied to intensive farming

• Difficult to apply due to ambiguities around the principle of personalism - we assume Fletcher means humans because he does not write about animals, but Situationism could be used in a wider sense.

• Fletcher would also approach through pragmatism, e.g. cattle consume so much grain that decreasing meat production might lead to a positive increase in other crops - but some livestock still required for manure!

Scientific procedures/ cloning

• Scientific procedures may involve use of animals to develop drugs and medicines, and as test-subjects for new therapies.

• Cloning animals, as in the case of Dolly the Sheep can have a number of applications, such as preserving endangered species, making animals disease-resistant, or increasing the meat or fur yield.

Virtue ethics applied to the use of animals in scientific procedures and cloning

• Learning about medical conditions from animals could be seen as a good use of intellectual virtue, which separates us from animals.

• Traditionally virtues such as justice, generosity, friendliness etc. are seen to refer to the relationships between humans.

• However, a modern virtue ethicist may argue these also apply to our relationships with animals.

Nml applied to the use of animals in scientific procedures and cloning

• Would not generally take issue; the Catholic Church (through the teachings of Aquinas) supports animal testing.

• However anything too extreme (e.g. producing animal/human hybrids) may be seen as against the Worship of God.

Situation ethics applied to the use of animals in scientific procedures and cloning

• Would recognise the practical benefits e.g. HIV/AIDs treatments from chickens/cats/monkeys.

• Fletcher himself was involved in cloning research and advocated the use of animals in scientific procedures.

• Could apply the fundamental principle that the end justifies the means, but it could be argued that the ways animals are disposed of after testing (e.g. rats decapitated with scissors) are not loving.

Blood sports

Blood sports is a term used to refer to sports that involve animal bloodshed, including hunting, fishing, bull-fighting, and goose-pulling, done for the entertainment of those who participate.

Moral issues surrounding blood sports

• Cultural relativism - many blood sports are central to cultures (e.g. bullfighting in Spain)

• Unnecessary harm and death to animals

• Danger to those taking part

• Psychological impact on spectators

Virtue ethics applied to blood sports

• Aristotle offers no arguments against, and many Ancient Greeks liked to hunt animals, however it could be argued that virtues should be adapted to reflect changes in social attitudes e.g. fox hunting bans.

• Limiting the killing of animals to cases where it is strictly necessary could be seen as temperance, and taking part in potentially dangerous sports could be seen as recklessness (though also possibly a chance to develop bravery).

Nml applied to blood sports

• Offers no major objections but Aquinas does raise the concern that a person who is cruel to animals “might go on to do the same to men”, highlighting the psychological impact

• Allowing violent tendencies to be encouraged could potentially threaten the harmonious nature of society, which would violate the primary precept of an ordered society

Situation ethics applied to blood sports

• Would apply relativism to look at the full range of cases.

• May be pragmatic in some cases e.g. to keep the fox population down and avoid the death of chickens due to foxes.

• The culture of blood sports does not tend to make people more loving and the resultant blood lust could be seen as unchristian. Equally, Fletcher may argue it is better to take this out on animals than human neighbours.

• In the interest of agape, there is very little that can be gained toward this end by blood sports

Animals as a source of organs for transplant

The technical term for the use of animals as a source for transplants is xenotransplantation. For example, the transplantation of genetically engineered pigs hearts as heart transplants for humans.

Moral issues surroundings animals as a source of organ transplant

• Death of animals

• Lack of alternatives

• Risk of disease transmission

Virtue ethics applied to the use of animals as a source of organ transplant

Many arguments in favour e.g. Aristotle’s approval of scientific research, focus on intellect and lower status of animals, though practical wisdom would also take account of the possible risks.

Nml applied to the use of animals as a source of organ transplant

Would approve the use of animals in human treatments on grounds of preservation of life, though the Catholic Church rejects any use of animals that permanently alters the human genome as a failure to worship God

Situation ethics applied to the use of animals as a source of organ transplant

Pragmatism may recognise practical concerns such as disease risk. Fletcher always starts with the question “Who is to be helped?” (Personalism) Even with the risk considered, it may be justifiable to take a leap of faith (positivism)

Theft and lying

• Theft - deliberate taking of an item or asset which does not belong to you

• Lying - deliberate stating or omission of a fact or falsehood

Virtue ethics applied to theft/ lying

• Generally against as these acts will likely be connected with some kind of vice (e.g. greed/dishonesty) however there might be some situations in which they show virtue, for example if it is practically wise to lie to someone

• To take an example of theft, it may be that it takes courage to steal to feed one’s family. However, a kleptomaniac who steals from small shops may need to show temperance and avoid stealing to improve their character.

• To take an example of lying, friendliness is the golden mean and therefore lying to reassure a friend may be an expression of friendliness. But the excess of friendliness is flattery and if we lie excessively we may fall into the vice of excess. Truthfulness is also a golden mean but again, we can take this too far and become boastful by shouting about all our triumphs.

NML applied to theft/ lying

• Almost always against both due to the Primary Precepts being broken - theft threatens ordered society & lying threatens Education.

• To steal is against the commandments of god - in the Ten Commandments it states ‘you shall not steal’ - so this breaks the primary precept of worshiping god

• Aquinas suggests lying is always wrong but also suggests that it may be justified to steal if you are starving, since this could be seen as within the parameters of an ordered society (redistributing justly)

• Proportionalism would allow some situations of theft and lying as a necessary evil. As Hoose says, "it is never right to go against a principle unless there is a proportionate reason which would justify it”. So theft may be justified in order to access food if you are starving, or life-saving medicine that is being withheld from someone who needs it, but this need should always be weighed carefully against the damage the theft will cause.

Situation ethics applied to theft/ lying

• In both cases Fletcher would apply relativism to suggest there are cases where the act is wrong and cases where it is right.

• Aims to serve the purpose of agape meaning that theft may be considered the most loving thing to do in certain situations

• Fletcher gives the example of a student stealing a textbook - whether it is right depends on why the student is stealing it, who else needs it, where from, etc.

• If lying would save the life of a innocent human being, then it is the correct moral choice in that situation - it is made out of love for that individual

Utilitarianism

• Teleological

• Consequentialist

• Relativist

• Jeremy Bentham ‘On the Principles of Morals and Legislation’

• Principle of Utility: the greatest amount of pleasure for the greatest number of people. Bentham argued that we should use the hedonic calculus and this alone in order to make decisions.

Hedonist

Human beings are psychologically motivated by pleasure and the avoidance of pain and that goodness and pleasure are the same

Principle of utility

• The greatest amount of pleasure for the greatest number of people

• Should use the hedonic calculus and this alone in order to make decisions

• The hedonic calculus is a way of calculating the balance of pleasure and pain and ensuring that acts meet the principle of utility:

  • Purity: how free from pain is the act?

  • Remoteness: how near or far in the future is the pleasure?

  • Extent: How many people does it affect?

  • Duration: How long does it last?

  • Intensity: How intense is the pleasure/pain?

  • Certainty: How certain is the pleasure to result from the act?

  • To be followed: How likely is the act to be followed by more pleasures of the same kind?

Act utilitarian

Should make decisions about right and wrong to suit each unique situation, rather than applying broader rules

Strengths of utilitarianism

• It gives equal priority to humans and animals

• The Hedonic Calculus is clear and easy to apply to most situations

• Doesn’t allow for personal bias

• By rejecting traditional approaches he is ahead of his time on issues such as animal rights and homosexuality. He says that the first thing we should ask if not whether someone is rational but "Can they suffer?" This has clear application to animal issues that other theories lack

Weaknesses of utilitarianism

• It treats all pleasures as equal which they are not

• In many situations we do not know enough to apply the Hedonic Calculus and it is not clear how we should act with such little information

• Not practical/ realistic to agree on greatest pleasure/ being able to accurately predict future pleasure

• He puts too much emphasis on consequences and not enough on intent (he is a teleological thinker)

• By looking at the greatest number he ignores the preferences of minorities

Kantian ethics

• Deontological

• Absolutist

• ‘Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morality’

• Argued that the only thing that is unconditionally good is a good will: a will that acts in accordance with universal law

Hypothetical imperative

• Based on contingent facts (e.g. desire, the situation) which might change so cannot ground universal moral rules

• If you want y, you ought to do x

• Kant rejected hypothetical imperatives

Categorical imperative

• The universal moral principle which binds all rational beings, and has three formulations

• Do x

Good will

Kant argued that the only thing that is unconditionally good is a good will: a will that acts in accordance with universal law.

Three formulations of the categorical imperative

1. Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law - we should only do what we could reasonably expect other people to do in other situations.

2. Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or the person of any other, never simply as a means, but always at the same time as an end - Others must be treated as free moral agents in their own right. Treating people as a means dehumanises them and violates the Categorical Imperative.

3. Act as though a legislating member of the universal Kingdom of Ends - Act as if you are always responsible for making rules in a kingdom where everyone is to be treated as an 'end' and not as a means: a society of free and autonomous human individuals.

Strengths of kantian ethics

• Kant’s approach is clear-cut and cannot be exploited since it doesn’t make exceptions

• Kant underlies the importance of human dignity and universal law, and in doing so paves the way for a concept of human rights

• The principle reflects many of our moral intuitions - for example we hate hypocrites who expect one thing of others and then do something else themselves

• It is simple and effective, quicker to follow than going through the Principle of Utility

Weaknesses of kantian ethics

• Kant treats “person” only as a rational beings, and therefore rules out animals as having moral worth

• Many see Kant’s approach as too dogmatic and idealistic, using examples such as the axe murderer to illustrate how it breaks down in real situations

• It seems that following Kant's morality would not make you a better person - you could do something out of duty but still be otherwise full of spite, anger, and disgust at the world

• Kant does not consider that there are some acts which might benefit society but only if they are not universalised - i.e. we would not wish that everyone martyr themselves but were it not for martyrs, many human rights victories would have been lost

Similarities between Kant and Bentham

• Both Kant and Bentham believe that all of morality can be captured in a single principle, for Kant the Categorical Imperative and for Bentham the Principle of Utility

• Kant and Bentham are both secular in their approaches, suggesting that we should be relying on our own reason and autonomy rather than scripture.

Differences between Kant and Bentham

• Bentham believes that anything which can experience pain deserves moral consideration, whereas Kant says we should only be concerned about rational beings

• Kant is a rationalist, meaning that he believes we get our moral knowledge a priori by reflecting on the Categorical Imperative; Bentham is an empiricist, meaning that he believes we learn about morality through our sense experiences of pleasure and pain

• Kant believes we should only follow Categorical Imperatives; Bentham believes that all moral decision making is hypothetical as it depends on whether pleasure will result (Bentham is teleological, Kant is deontological)

Similarities between bentham and Christian decision making

• Jesus’ death can be seen as the ultimate example of the Principle of Utility, one being chosen to die to save the whole human race

• Many of Jesus’ instructions are focused on bringing about the greatest good for the greatest number, e.g. the Parable of the Sheep and Goats emphasises the importance of visiting those in prison, helping the homeless, etc.

• Including every living being, animals were also created by god and therefore part of a perfect and holy creation

• Jesus acts situationally rather than following laws and duties - for example, breaking the Sabbath in order to perform healing

Differences between Bentham and Christian decision making

• Jesus says ‘do not kill’ but Bentham would say that it depends on the situation and may allow it if it will bring more pleasure than pain, Christianity defines certain pleasures as morally evil

• Utilitarianism is a secular theory so doesn’t consult religious authority or appeal to religious values

Similarities between Kant and Christian decision making

• Many of the rules given in the Bible are clearly meant as completely binding, e.g. the Ten Commandments which are not to be broken under any circumstances.

• Jesus’ Golden Rule - love your neighbour as yourself - has been recognised by many to be very similar to Kant’s First Formulation of the Categorical Imperative.

• Second formulation focus on dignity and worth of individuals is close to Christian teachings about sanctity of life

• Kant's emphasis on human reason is compatible with Aquinas's view that this is a human faculty

Differences between Kant and Christian decision making

• In the sermon on the mount, Jesus says that looking at a woman lustfully is an act of adultery whereas Kant would say that choosing not to perform the act is already a moral decision

• Kant rejects the view that emotions and feelings can be a basis for morality whereas Jesus teachings seem to suggest that love, compassion and empathy should guide moral behaviour

Conscience according to Aquinas

• The natural ability of a rational human being to understand the difference between right and wrong, which he called Conscientia.

• Conscience allows us to figure out secondary precepts from primary precepts.

• It is not the 'voice of God' or an intuitive guide but the ability to apply moral knowledge to the situation.

Ways conscience can go wrong according to Aquinas

• Invincible Ignorance: A person might not be aware of the relevant moral principle. For conscience to work, a person needs to have some background information about what is considered right and wrong. (Not morally responsible)

• Vincible Ignorance: A person might know and agree to a general moral principle, but be unaware that it applied in a set situation (morally responsible)

Conscience applied to lies and breaking promises (Aquinas)

• Telling lies and breaking promises are considered irrational because they conflict with the synderesis rule to seek to do good and avoid evil and violate the primary precept of living in an ordered society.

• Aquinas considers the “mad axe-murderer” situation as an exceptional circumstance where telling an evasive truth might be justified.

Conscience as a guide for adultery (Aquinas)

• Aquinas views adultery as wrong dictated by reason (conscience)

• Aquinas does not believe that conscience is infallible; he thinks it can make mistakes

• Mistaken conscience - Aquinas gives an example of a man who unknowingly marries a widow and engages in sexual relations with her, only to later discover that her husband was still alive.

• Aquinas says that there is no fault in following a mistaken conscience in situations where there is genuine lack of knowledge of the true facts of the case.