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What did Plato believe in and what does it mean?
Dualism
Means he believed in the body and soul being separate
Also believed in two world - this one and the World of the Forms
Said our soul came from the WOTF to this world and we recognise things here after having seen their perfect versions
When we die our soul goes back to the WOTF
What’s the difference between Plato’s two worlds?
WOTF = perfect, immutable, eternal, incorporeal (non-physical)
This world = imperfect, changing, temporal, physical
What did Plato believe about the soul’s relationship to the two worlds?
It bridges the two worlds
What were Plato’s beliefs on the mind/soul?
Reasoning is the most important aspect of the soul
Our soul belongs to the WOTF and came into our bodies from there
Our knowledge is recollected from there by the soul
WOTF contains all truth
Knowledge is innate but physical experience prevents us from recollecting it fully
What is the Analogy of the Chariot?
The soul (psyche) has 3 parts
1 = reason which tries to direct us up to the truth (forms)
2 = emotion which is required to take us there
3 = appetite which can drag us down
What are the strengths of Plato’s view on the soul?
we all have the same concept of beauty. goodness and truth
What are the weaknesses of Plato’s view on the soul?
No empirical evidence
Are there forms of things that don’t exist yet?
When we are shown new things, we need to be taught what they are
It is elitist to think only philosophers can rule
How does the soul interact with us?
Scientifically we can explain recollecting things
What did Aristotle believe about the soul?
In order to be human, we need a soul
Body and soul are not distinct, the soul is our purpose
What example does Aristotle give about his opinions on the soul?
If the eye was an animal sight would’ve been its soul
This is because sight is its purpose, the eye is just the way in which it is carried out
Without sight, it is no longer an eye other than in name
What are Aristotle’s 4 causes? (MEFF)
Material - what it is made up of
Formal - what its characteristics are
Efficient - how it is made
Final - its purpose/telos
How do Aristotle’s 4 causes link to the soul?
He addresses the formal and final causes
The characteristic (the body) lends to the purpose (soul)
Explain fully Aristotle’s view on the soul
Contrary to Plato, he was a MONIST
His views are empiricist and believes truth is in this world
“soul” didn’t mean soul like Plato described it
All living things “have” a soul and it’s what gives something its purpose
The soul then can’t be separated from body
What was Aristotle’s view on souls in different species?
They have different souls
Plants have a vegetative soul
Animals have a sensitive soul
Humans have a rational soul
What are the strengths of Aristotle’s view on the soul?
Doesn’t over-complicate by bringing in “something extra”
Rooted in science and evidence
Demonstrates how humans are distinct to other living things - helps classification
What are the weaknesses of Aristotle’s view on the soul?
Confusing, “soul” feels spiritual but he rejects this
Everyone has the same “soul” which takes away our individuality
Any human that can’t reason is not a human at all?
Elitist
Compare Plato to Aristotle
Plato is dualist, Aristotle is a monist
Plato is a spiritualist while Aristotle is an empiricist
Plato believes our soul contains innate knowledge but Aristotle didn’t really believe in a soul other than that it is our purpose
Plato believes the soul to be superior to the body while Aristotle is the opposite
Plato believed the soul is immortal but Aristotle didn’t
Is Descartes a dualist or a monist?
Dualist!
Explain Descartes’ substance dualism
He believed mind and body are distinct substances made of different properties
Matter = extended substance
mind = mental substance
This is sometimes called “Cartesian Dualism”
What is the problem with substance dualism?
How do the substances interact?
Explain Descartes’ reason beyond faith
He wanted to show existence of the soul can be proven not just through theology but also through logic and reason
He knew there needed to be natural proof of it for non-believers to understand
Explain Descartes’ 1st proof
Argument from Doubt
Said we can’t know the difference between dream and reality and only when we wake do we know its not real
Everything we now “know” is just imaginary , there could be an evil demon tricking us into believing the world is not real
However Descartes argues that because we can doubt our body exists but we cannot doubt that we are thinking beings (doubt is thinking) then we are not the same as our body
What are the issues with Descartes’ 1st proof?
Thinking comes from the brain which is a part of the body
Explain Descartes’ 2nd proof
Argument from Divisibility and Non-divisibility
All bodies are extended in space so are physically divisible
Minds aren’t extended in space so aren’t physically divisible meaning our mental states (qualia) can’t be measured or divided
Hence minds are v different to bodies and they function in a distinct way
What is the problem with the 2nd proof?
The mind is required for the body to function
Explain Descartes’ 3rd proof
Argument from Clear and Distinct Perception
Whatever I see as two distinct things can be created by God as 2 distinct things
I have a clear idea of myself as a non-extended thinking thing
I have a clear and distinct idea of my body as an extended non-thinking thing
So I and my body can exist separately
Hence I am distinct from my body
What is the problem with the 3rd proof?
Without a body, do we truly exist?
Explain Gilbert Ryle’s “Ghost in the Machine”
Ryle uses this phrase to show the key issues with Descartes’ theory
Says he talks of the soul like a ghost in machine, something that doesn’t exist but is used to explain something that can be rationally explained otherwise
Calls this a “category mistake” - this is a MATERIALIST view
Summarise Ryle’s University analogy
A foreigner visits Cambridge and is shown the colleges and libraries
They then ask where the university is but their mistake is that they’re looking for something separate from all the buildings
They don’t realise they’ve already seen the Uni
In the same way Ryle says dualists mistakenly search for something above the brain called the mind
What did Descartes believe was the way that body and soul interacted?
They interacted through the Pineal Gland
This was used to explain interaction as no one knew the function of it at the time
What is the function of the Pineal Gland that was later discovered?
Regulates melatonin which is the hormone controlling the circadian rhythm
Explain Monism/ hard materialism/ physicalism
The completely opposite view to Descartes
It is reductionist = mind reduces to the brain
The brain makes who we are
Consciousness/ the mind is simply the product of the brain’s activitiy
Explain briefly Dawkin’s view on the body and soul
The body is a “survival machine” for genes
Our genetic inheritance guides us, not something external like God/mind/ soul
Soul is just a psychological concept we’ve invented
Mental state can’t be separated from the brain
Evolution explains development of everything
What are the strengths of hard materialism/ physicalism?
Dawkins relies on science to support argument
Physical events seem to impact us mentally eg: drugs affect mental state
Solves issue of soul and body interacting
When body stop, mind stops - consciousness doesn’t seem to continue
What are the weaknesses of hard materialism/ physicalism?
Mind decides what body does
Near-death experiences suggest consciousness does work after death/ during it
Theists would disagree
Qualia (our individual thoughts which are subjective) show that we have individual experiences
Explain functionalism
It is physicalist
The mind is like an info processing machine
Minds identified by their function not what they are
Give an example to explain functionalism
E.g: Thermostat’s function is to alter temp of room (output) based on conditions (input)
In same way, mind’s function is to process data of sense (input) to generate outcome (output) - it does this through the brain
What is “multiple realisability” under functionalism?
Minds and their states could run on dif systems eg: computers
A robot could be programmed in the same way
Outline dual-aspect monism
It is NOT dualism - there is only 1 substance
Substance has two aspects: mind (subjective awareness) and brain (objective and physical)
Neither brain nor mind reduces to the other, they’re both aspects of the same substance
How is dual-aspect monism potentially more useful than the other two theories?
Avoids the problems of substance dualism - there aren’t separate substances to interact
Avoids problem of physicalism as qualia are not only physical but ineffable
How are quarks used to explain dual-aspect monism?
In quantum physics quarks are unobserved but make sense of our understanding of physics
Similarly, there could be a single unknown substance that ensures mind and body are complementary aspects of one psycho-physical reality
What are the strengths of dual-aspect monism?
Science works well with it
Qualia - brains work the same but we have subjective minds/ opinions
No need for a separate soul
Process theology - objective immortality
What are the weaknesses of dual-aspect monism?
Still not understood
Not sure how this links to life after death - subjective immortality?
Doesn’t cohere with Bible
List a few ways we could live on after death
Reincarnation/ rebirth
Afterlife ie heaven/hell
Mental afterlife, psychological heaven
Objective immortality, live on in God’s memory
In memories of others
Through our children/ legacy
What is the first ideal about personal identity?
The Physical
Brain is essential to who you are
Your bodily identity is about spatio-temporal continuity (STC)
This is the idea that you won’t disappear and reappear elsewhere, you can’t be physically split
Hence death means the STC is finished and you have no conscience
What is the second idea about personal identity?
The Metaphysical
You have a conscious awareness that is changing and maintains an identity through a self-aware mind and memory
Your soul is separate and is eternal as it carries on after death, reflects dualism
What is the third idea about personal identity?
The Psychological
There is a constant causal link between events and your thoughts and memories but no actual “self”
There is no “you”
Outline Hick’s replica theory
Hick is a monist, believes we are psychophysical entity in that mind and body can’t be separated
However there is life after death
When we die everything of us dies
We can be replicated by God in heaven physically in a perfect manner with the same character and memories
We are discernibly ourselves
This is possible because God is omnipotent
Explain the 3 scenarios that Hick gives to explain his theory
John Smith disappears from NYC and appears in Australia but has the same memories - it is the same person
John dies in NYC and appears in Australia having the same memories - still same person
This is the same as us dying and reappearing in heaven as a replica (not clone, exact replica) having all same character traits
What are the strengths of Hick’s replica theory?
Doesn’t have to verify the existence of the soul
Optimistic
Logically possible
What are the weaknesses of Hick’s replica theory?
Assumes an omnipotent God
Is a replica really us? Can’t be identical
What does “perfect version” mean?
Endless replications leads to a meaningless life
Logically possible but not factually possible
What did Plato believe in?
Arguments from recollection and cycle of opposites
Means something only exists because its opposite exists
What was Price’s view?
Said the afterlife is mind-based, the mind is detached from the body
It is similar to a dream-world where it feels physical but isn’t
Corresponds to your desires and memories
Potential for telepathic communication
It is your consciousness making you feel like you live on
What did Swinburne believe?
Was a substance dualist
Said a conscious self/ soul could exist after death in a disembodied state
Like a lightbulb, can be plugged into a new socket in heaven when our earthly one is broken
Is sort of like reincarnation
Define reincarnation
Re-birth; in Hinduism the belief that your soul is reborn into a new body in a repeating cycle
Explain reincarnation in a bit more detail
It suggests body and soul are separate and soul is the real us
Suggests we should act well in the world as we will return to it in next life
God is necessary to give us the soul - he judges how we’ve acted and is within everything
What is karma?
That we get what we deserve, if we act bad our next life is bad too
Why do some believe in reincarnation?
we get a second chance at life
It’s fair
You can do what you couldn’t do in your past life
Give the Hindu definition of the soul
The soul is the true self and is distinct from the physical body
Give some evidence for reincarnation
Hindu scripture
Past life regression eg: hypnotherapy
Children’s past life memories
What are the arguments for reincarnation?
where else would children get the info if not past life
Physical manifestation eg: birth marks
Child = younger, more recent
What are some arguments against reincarnation?
children make stuff up
Parents can push a narrative
Reincarnation is an expectation in some cultures, experiencing it may just be confirmation bias
It could just be an extraordinary coincidence
Define a near-death experience
A profound experience around the time of death, which is recalled upon survival
List some features of NDE’s
meeting a barrier
Seeing a light
Meeting dead relatives