Key Events in American History (1492–2010)

Columbian Exchange

The widespread transfer of plants, animals, disease pathogens, and cultures between the Americas and Afro-Eurasia following Columbus's voyages, which reshaped diets, populations, and ecosystems on both sides of the Atlantic.

Encomienda System

A Spanish colonial practice in which conquistadors were granted the labor of specific Indigenous groups in return for ostensibly protecting and Christianizing them, effectively creating a forced-labor regime in New Spain.

Jamestown & Tobacco Cultivation

England's first permanent North American settlement, founded in 1607, which survived largely due to John Rolfe's introduction of high-yield tobacco in 1612, making tobacco Virginia's 'cash crop' and establishing plantation slavery.

Mayflower Compact

A self-governing agreement signed by Pilgrim settlers aboard the Mayflower stipulating majority rule for the general good—an early foundation for colonial political self-rule and social contract theory.

Headright System

A Virginia Company land-grant policy awarding 50 acres to any settler (or sponsor of an immigrant) who paid for passage to the Chesapeake, incentivizing indentured servitude and large estates.

Bacon's Rebellion

A violent uprising in Virginia led by Nathaniel Bacon against Governor William Berkeley's administration, protesting frontier defense policies and perceived elite corruption.

Pennsylvania Frame of Government

William Penn's charter establishing a 'Holy Experiment' of religious toleration, representative assembly, and fair relations with Native Americans.

First Great Awakening

A series of evangelical revivals led by itinerant preachers like Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield, emphasizing personal faith, emotional preaching, and challenge to established clergy.

French and Indian War

North American theater of the Seven Years' War pitting Britain (and colonists) against France (and Native allies); British victory enlarged colonial territory but saddled Britain with debt.

Proclamation Line

British decree forbidding colonial settlement west of the Appalachians to stabilize relations with Native tribes.

Stamp Act

Parliamentary tax on printed paper in the colonies to help pay for British troops, provoking the first unified colonial protest—'no taxation without representation'.

Common Sense

Thomas Paine's pamphlet blaming King George III (not Parliament) for colonial grievances and advocating independence.

Declaration of Independence

Continental Congress document proclaiming the colonies free from British rule and articulating natural-rights philosophies ('life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness').

Articles of Confederation

The first U.S. constitution creating a weak national government with no executive or power to tax, leading to fiscal crisis, interstate friction, and eventual calls for stronger federal authority.

Shays' Rebellion

Massachusetts uprising of indebted farmers led by Daniel Shays that highlighted weaknesses of the Confederation (inability to quell unrest), spurring calls for Constitutional Convention.

U.S. Constitution

Framework replacing the Articles, establishing separation of powers among executive, legislative, and judicial branches, a bicameral Congress, and mechanisms like checks and balances; ratified in 1788.

Federalist Papers

Essays by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay defending the new Constitution and explaining its provisions, instrumental in persuading New York to ratify.

Bill of Rights

The first ten amendments guaranteeing individual liberties (speech, religion, trial by jury) and limiting federal power, securing ratification support from Anti-Federalists.

Whiskey Rebellion

Pennsylvania farmers' violent protest against an excise tax on whiskey; President Washington's federal militia response affirmed the Constitution's enforcement power.

Louisiana Purchase

Jefferson's acquisition of ~530 million acres from France for $15 million, doubling U.S. territory and fueling debates over constitutional limits on executive power.

Marbury v. Madison

Supreme Court decision establishing judicial review, enabling the Court to declare congressional acts unconstitutional.

Missouri Compromise

Congressional agreement admitting Missouri as a slave state and Maine as free, drawing a slavery-line at latitude 36°30′ in the Louisiana Territory; it postponed sectional conflict.

Monroe Doctrine

President Monroe's declaration that the Western Hemisphere was off-limits to new European colonization and that the U.S. would oppose intervention—a cornerstone of American foreign policy.

Nullification Crisis

South Carolina's attempt under John C. Calhoun to nullify the 'Tariff of Abominations,' resolved by a compromise tariff and force-bill, affirming federal supremacy.

Second Great Awakening

A revivalist movement stressing individual salvation and social reforms (temperance, abolition), spawning new denominations and reform societies.

Seneca Falls Convention

First women's rights convention in New York, issuing the Declaration of Sentiments demanding women's suffrage and legal equality.

Mexican-American War

Conflict resulting in U.S. victory and acquisition of the Southwest via the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, reigniting slavery debates over territory.

Compromise of 1850

Five-part package—including California's admission as free state and a stricter Fugitive Slave Act—designed by Clay and Webster to defuse sectional tensions.

Kansas-Nebraska Act

Law establishing popular sovereignty in new territories, effectively repealing the Missouri Compromise and igniting 'Bleeding Kansas' violence between pro- and anti-slavery settlers.

Dred Scott v. Sandford

Supreme Court ruling that African Americans were not citizens and that Congress lacked authority to prohibit slavery in the territories, further polarizing North and South.

Lincoln's Election

Abraham Lincoln's victory without Southern electoral votes prompted secession of seven Deep South states before his inauguration.

Emancipation Proclamation

Executive order declaring freedom for enslaved people in Confederate territories, reframing the Civil War as a fight against slavery.

Gettysburg Address

Lincoln's short but profound speech at the dedication of a battlefield cemetery, redefining the war's purpose as a 'new birth of freedom.'

13th Amendment

Constitutional amendment abolishing slavery throughout the United States.

Reconstruction Acts

Congressional laws dividing the South into military districts and requiring new state constitutions with Black male suffrage for readmission.

14th Amendment

Guaranteed birthright citizenship and equal protection under the law, a cornerstone for later civil-rights rulings.

15th Amendment

Prohibited denying the vote based on race or previous servitude, though enforcement would wane during the Jim Crow era.

Compromise of 1877

Informal agreement that resolved the disputed 1876 election by installing Republican Rutherford B. Hayes as President in exchange for withdrawal of federal troops from the South, effectively ending Reconstruction.

Industrialization & the Gilded Age

Period from 1870 to 1900 characterized by rapid industrial growth and economic expansion.

Transcontinental Railroad Completed

The Union Pacific and Central Pacific railroads connected at Promontory Summit, Utah, transforming commerce, settlement, and time zones.

Sherman Antitrust Act

First federal law banning monopolistic business practices, though initially weakly enforced.

Gospel of Wealth

Andrew Carnegie's essay arguing wealthy industrialists had a moral obligation to distribute their fortunes for public good (libraries, education).

Social Darwinism

Application of 'survival of the fittest' to business and society, justifying laissez-faire capitalism and social inequality.

Knights of Labor

Inclusive labor federation advocating broad social reforms (eight-hour day, equal pay), peaking in the 1880s before decline after the Haymarket Riot.

American Federation of Labor

Samuel Gompers's federation of skilled-craft unions focused on 'bread-and-butter' issues (wages, hours, conditions), becoming the dominant labor organization.

Populist Party

Political party of farmers and laborers demanding bimetallism, government ownership of railroads, and direct election of senators, influencing later Progressive reforms.

Hull House

Jane Addams's Chicago settlement house providing social services, education, and advocacy for immigrants and the urban poor.

Plessy v. Ferguson

Supreme Court decision upholding 'separate but equal' segregation, institutionalizing Jim Crow laws until overturned in 1954.

Theodore Roosevelt's Square Deal

TR's domestic program promoting 'three Cs'—control of corporations, consumer protection, and conservation of natural resources—ushering in regulatory reforms like the Pure Food and Drug Act.

19th Amendment

Granted women the right to vote nationwide, culminating decades of suffrage activism.

Great Migration

Mass relocation of over six million African Americans from the rural South to Northern and Western cities, reshaping urban demographics and fueling the Harlem Renaissance.

Stock Market Crash

Sudden collapse of U.S. stock prices beginning October 24 ('Black Thursday'), triggering the Great Depression.

New Deal

FDR's series of federal programs (CCC, TVA, Social Security) designed to provide relief, recovery, and reform from the Great Depression, vastly expanding the federal government's role.

Lend-Lease Act

Authorized the U.S. to supply Allied nations with war material on credit, marking a shift from neutrality to active support before Pearl Harbor.

GI Bill (1944)

Servicemen's Readjustment Act providing veterans with low-cost mortgages, education benefits, and loans, fueling postwar suburbanization and college enrollment.

Truman Doctrine (1947)

Policy pledging U.S. support for "free peoples" resisting communism, foundational to Cold War containment strategy.

Marshall Plan (1948)

U.S. economic aid program that funneled over $12 billion into Western Europe to rebuild economies and counter Soviet influence.

Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

Supreme Court ruling unanimously declaring school segregation unconstitutional, energizing the civil-rights movement.

Domestic "Great Society" (1964-1965)

LBJ's legislative agenda—including the Civil Rights Act (1964), Voting Rights Act (1965), Medicare, and Medicaid—aimed at eliminating poverty and racial injustice.

Vietnamization (1969-1973)

Nixon's policy of building South Vietnamese forces while gradually withdrawing U.S. troops, yet ultimately failing to prevent Saigon's fall in 1975.

Reaganomics (1981-1989)

President Reagan's supply-side economic policies—tax cuts, deregulation, and reduced social spending—intended to spur growth but also widening income inequality and deficits.

Gilded Age & Progressive Era (1870-1920)

Period marked by rapid economic growth and social reform movements in the United States.

Interstate Commerce Act (1887)

Established the first federal regulatory agency—the Interstate Commerce Commission—to oversee railroad rates and practices, marking a shift toward government intervention in big business.

Sherman Silver Purchase Act (1890)

Required the U.S. Treasury to buy a fixed amount of silver monthly to supplement gold reserves, aiming to appease Populists but contributing to the Panic of 1893 when reserves ran low.

Pullman Strike (1894)

Nationwide railroad strike led by the American Railway Union against the Pullman Company, federal troops intervened, underscoring tensions between labor and government in the Gilded Age.

Muckrakers (early 1900s)

Investigative journalists like Ida Tarbell and Upton Sinclair who exposed corruption and social ills, fueling Progressive reforms such as the Pure Food and Drug Act (1906).

Pure Food and Drug Act (1906)

Federal law that prohibited manufacture, sale, or transport of adulterated or misbranded foods and drugs, creating the Food and Drug Administration.

Federal Reserve Act (1913)

Created the Federal Reserve System as the nation's central bank with twelve regional reserve banks to stabilize the banking system and control the money supply.

Clayton Antitrust Act (1914)

Strengthened the Sherman Antitrust Act by prohibiting price discrimination, interlocking directorates, and exempting labor unions from antitrust prosecution.

17th Amendment (1913)

Established direct election of U.S. senators by popular vote rather than state legislatures, expanding democratic control over the federal government.

Triangle Shirtwaist Fire (1911)

Deadly factory fire in New York City killing 146 workers, catalyzing labor reforms and stricter workplace safety laws.

Hull House (1889)

Settlement house founded by Jane Addams in Chicago providing social services, education, and advocacy for immigrants and the urban poor.

Zimmermann Telegram (1917)

Secret German proposal to Mexico promising U.S. territory if it joined the Central Powers, prompting U.S. entry into WWI.

Espionage and Sedition Acts (1917-1918)

Laws imposing harsh penalties for anti-war speech, reflecting wartime restrictions on civil liberties.

League of Nations

International organization founded after WWI to promote peace, which the U.S. notably refused to join, limiting its effectiveness

Red Scare

Period of intense fear of communism and radicals in the U.S., leading to Palmer Raids and suppression of civil liberties

Harlem Renaissance

Flourishing of African American arts and culture centered in Harlem, New York, that celebrated Black identity and challenged racial stereotypes

Scopes "Monkey" Trial

Tennessee court case testing a law banning the teaching of evolution, highlighting conflicts between modernism and traditionalism

18th Amendment & Volstead Act

Constitutional amendment and enforcement law that instituted Prohibition, banning alcohol manufacture and sale until repeal in 1933

19th Amendment

Granted women the right to vote nationwide, a culmination of the suffrage movement's decades-long struggle

Teapot Dome Scandal

Secretary of the Interior Albert Fall's leasing of federal oil reserves in exchange for bribes, exemplifying government corruption in the Harding administration

Buying on Margin

Practice of purchasing stocks with borrowed money, contributing to the 1929 crash when margin calls forced massive sell-offs

Bonus Army

WWI veterans' march on Washington demanding early payment of promised bonuses, violently dispersed by the U.S. Army under Hoover

First Hundred Days

FDR's initial legislative blitz establishing key New Deal agencies (CCC, TVA, AAA) to combat the Depression

Social Security Act

Created federal retirement pensions and unemployment insurance, laying the foundation for the modern welfare state

Wagner Act

Guaranteed workers' rights to unionize and bargain collectively, strengthening labor's role in industry

Court-Packing Plan

FDR's unsuccessful proposal to add six justices to the Supreme Court, aiming to secure pro-New Deal rulings

Good Neighbor Policy

Roosevelt's Latin America policy repudiating military intervention and emphasizing cooperation, improving regional relations

Isolationism

U.S. foreign policy reluctance to become entangled in European affairs, reflected in Neutrality Acts of the 1930s

Pearl Harbor Attack

Japanese surprise strike on Hawaii naval base, compelling U.S. entry into WWII

Executive Order 9066

Authorized removal and internment of over 110,000 Japanese Americans during WWII, raising enduring civil-liberties issues

Yalta Conference

Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin met to discuss postwar Europe, setting the stage for Cold War divisions

Truman Doctrine

Policy pledging U.S. support to 'free peoples' resisting communism, inaugurating Cold War containment

Marshall Plan

U.S. program providing over $12 billion in aid to rebuild Western Europe and counter Soviet influence

NATO

North Atlantic Treaty Organization, a military alliance of Western powers formed to deter Soviet aggression

Korean War

Conflict between Communist North Korea (backed by China/Soviet Union) and South Korea (backed by UN/U.S.), solidifying Cold War divisions

McCarthyism

Senator Joseph McCarthy's anti-communist crusade characterized by reckless investigations and blacklisting in government and entertainment

Board II (1955)

Supreme Court follow-up ordering desegregation 'with all deliberate speed,' though implementation was slow and uneven.

Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955-1956)

Year-long protest sparked by Rosa Parks, leading to a Supreme Court ruling against bus segregation and elevating MLK Jr.

Federal Highway Act (1956)

Authorized construction of 42,000 miles of interstate highways, transforming American mobility and suburbs.