PAF

Democracy (definition)

Rule by the people; citizens choose government and can participate.

Core features of democracy

Free and fair elections; political participation; rule of law; protection of rights; accountability and transparency.

What does 'one person, one vote' mean?

Each eligible voter’s ballot counts equally (no unequal weighting).

Universal enfranchisement (idea)

Broad access to voting; debate over limits (age, tests, property, etc.).

Proportional representation (idea)

Seats allocated roughly in proportion to votes received.

Majoritarian/plurality elections (idea)

Winning candidate/party can win without a majority (e.g., plurality).

Direct democracy (definition)

Citizens vote directly on laws/policies (referenda, initiatives).

Representative democracy (definition)

Citizens elect officials to make decisions/laws on their behalf.

Liberal democracy (definition)

Democracy + constitutional protections of rights, rule of law, and limits on government power.

Illiberal democracy (definition)

Elections exist, but rights/civil liberties and checks on power are weak.

Autocracy (definition)

Rule by one person or a small group with limited political competition.

Dictatorship (definition)

A form of autocracy with concentrated power and limited freedoms.

Oligarchy (definition)

Rule by a small elite group (wealthy, military, party leaders, etc.).

Theocracy (definition)

Government ruled by religious leaders/laws.

Authoritarian regime (definition)

Strong central power; limited political freedoms; not necessarily total control of society.

Totalitarian regime (definition)

Extreme authoritarianism: state seeks to control nearly all aspects of society.

Rule of law (definition)

Laws apply equally to everyone, including leaders; predictable and fairly enforced.

Accountability (definition)

Leaders can be sanctioned/removed for wrongdoing (elections, courts, oversight).

Transparency (definition)

Government actions/info are open and visible to the public.

Political legitimacy (definition)

Public belief that the government has the right to rule.

Why do democracies value peaceful transfers of power?

Helps legitimacy and stability; reduces political violence.

Constitutional protections (definition)

Rights/limits written into a constitution that restrain government power.

Separation of powers (definition)

Divide power among branches so no single branch dominates.

Checks and balances (definition)

Each branch has tools to limit the others.

Civil society (definition)

Organizations outside government (NGOs, churches, unions, groups) that shape public life.

Free press / independent media (definition)

Media operates without state control; informs public and checks power.

Pros of democracy (common)

More rights/freedoms; accountability; legitimacy; peaceful conflict resolution.

Cons/challenges of democracy (common)

Polarization; misinformation; slow decision-making; unequal participation.

What is an autocratic advantage often claimed?

Speed/decisiveness in policy-making (but risks abuse/corruption).

What is political participation?

Activities citizens do to influence government (voting, protests, contacting reps, etc.).

Founding principle: Popular sovereignty

Authority comes from the people; government exists by consent.

Founding principle: Limited government

Government power is restricted (constitution, rights, rule of law).

Founding principle: Individual rights

People have protections from government (speech, religion, due process, etc.).

Founding principle: Republicanism

Representative government; elected officials act for the public.

Founding principle: Separation of powers

Splits authority across branches to prevent tyranny.

Founding principle: Checks and balances

Branches can block/limit each other to prevent abuse.

Founding principle: Federalism

Power shared between national and state governments.

Why did colonists reject monarchy?

Viewed it as tyranny; wanted self-government and protections for rights.

Articles of Confederation (definition)

First U.S. constitution; weak national government; strong states.

Key weakness of Articles: taxing

Congress couldn’t levy taxes; relied on state contributions.

Key weakness of Articles: enforcement

Congress couldn’t enforce laws or regulate commerce effectively.

Key weakness of Articles: executive/judiciary

No national executive or national courts.

Key weakness of Articles: amending

Amendments required unanimity; nearly impossible to change.

Shays’ Rebellion (why important)

Showed weakness of national gov under Articles; pushed for stronger constitution.

Constitutional Convention (goal)

Revise/replace Articles; create stronger but limited national government.

Virginia Plan (idea)

Strong national gov; bicameral legislature based on population.

New Jersey Plan (idea)

Stronger national gov but equal state representation (like Articles).

Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise)

House based on population; Senate equal representation (2 per state).

Three-Fifths Compromise

Counted enslaved people as 3/5 for representation and taxation.

Electoral College (basic idea)

Indirect system for choosing president; states allocate electors.

Federalist Papers (definition)

Essays supporting ratification of the Constitution.

Federalists (who/what)

Supported Constitution; favored stronger national government.

Anti-Federalists (who/what)

Opposed Constitution; feared strong national gov; wanted Bill of Rights.

Federalist argument: need stronger union

Articles too weak; needed ability to tax, regulate commerce, provide defense.

Anti-Federalist argument: fear of tyranny

Strong central gov could threaten liberty; need explicit rights protections.

Bill of Rights (why added)

To win ratification; protect individual liberties from federal power.

Constitution: Article I (overview)

Legislative branch; Congress structure and powers.

Constitution: Article II (overview)

Executive branch; presidency powers and responsibilities.

Constitution: Article III (overview)

Judicial branch; Supreme Court and federal courts.

Constitution: Supremacy Clause (Article VI)

Constitution and federal law are supreme over state law.

Necessary and Proper Clause (Elastic Clause)

Congress can pass laws needed to carry out enumerated powers.

Enumerated powers (definition)

Powers specifically listed in the Constitution (esp. for Congress in Article I).

Implied powers (definition)

Powers inferred from enumerated powers (via Necessary and Proper Clause).

Reserved powers (definition)

Powers kept by states/people (10th Amendment).

Concurrent powers (definition)

Powers shared by federal and state governments (tax, courts, law enforcement).

Federalism (definition)

System where national and state governments share power.

Dual federalism (definition)

National and state have distinct spheres; limited overlap.

Cooperative federalism (definition)

National and state governments work together; overlapping responsibilities.

Fiscal federalism (definition)

Use of federal funding (grants) to influence state policies.

Categorical grants (definition)

Federal money with strict conditions for specific purposes.

Block grants (definition)

Federal money for broad purposes with more state discretion.

Mandate (definition)

Requirement imposed by federal gov on states/localities (sometimes unfunded).

Unfunded mandate (definition)

Federal requirement without providing money to carry it out.

Preemption (definition)

When federal law overrides state/local law (Supremacy Clause).

McCulloch v. Maryland (core holding)

Congress has implied powers; states can’t tax federal institutions.

Gibbons v. Ogden (core holding)

Broad federal power to regulate interstate commerce.

Wickard v. Filburn (core holding)

Commerce power can reach local activity if it substantially affects interstate commerce.

U.S. v. Lopez (core holding)

Limits on Commerce Clause; gun in school zone not interstate commerce.

Bill of Rights (definition)

First 10 amendments protecting individual liberties.

First Amendment (core rights)

Speech, religion, press, assembly, petition.

Establishment Clause (definition)

Government can’t establish an official religion.

Free Exercise Clause (definition)

Government can’t prohibit free exercise of religion.

Second Amendment (general)

Right to keep and bear arms (subject to legal limits).

Fourth Amendment (general)

Protection against unreasonable searches and seizures; warrants with probable cause.

Fifth Amendment (general)

Due process; protection against self-incrimination; double jeopardy; takings clause.

Sixth Amendment (general)

Rights of criminal defendants: speedy/public trial, counsel, jury, confront witnesses.

Eighth Amendment (general)

No excessive bail/fines; no cruel and unusual punishment.

Ninth Amendment (general)

Rights not listed still retained by the people.

Tenth Amendment (general)

Powers not delegated to federal gov reserved to states/people.

Incorporation doctrine (definition)

Applying Bill of Rights protections to states via the 14th Amendment.

Selective incorporation (definition)

Supreme Court applied most (not all) rights to states case-by-case.

Gitlow v. New York (importance)

First major step toward incorporating free speech to the states.

Mapp v. Ohio (importance)

Exclusionary rule applies to states (illegal evidence excluded).

Gideon v. Wainwright (importance)

Right to counsel in felony cases applies to states.

Miranda v. Arizona (importance)

Police must inform suspects of rights during custodial interrogation.

Civil rights (definition)

Government-protected rights ensuring equal treatment and freedom from discrimination.

Civil liberties (definition)

Freedoms from government interference (speech, religion, due process, etc.).

14th Amendment (core ideas)

Citizenship; due process; equal protection; basis for incorporation/civil rights.

Equal Protection Clause (definition)

States must treat people equally under the law; bans unjustified discrimination.

Plessy v. Ferguson (holding)

“Separate but equal” upheld (later overturned).