Sociology Paper 2

Beliefs in society

What are the key characteristics of religion as a belief system?

• It is a closed knowledge system meaning that the basic beliefs within religion do not tend to change.

• Empirical evidence is not necessary in order to have religious beliefs

• some religions claim a monopoly of the truth claiming to be the only way to answer questions.

What are contemporary issues and problems with religion today?

• Causes conflict

• can be manipulated to suit the political needs of the powerful

• can be exclusive (not allowing women or LGBTQ people

• People may be losing faith in particular forms of religion due to corruption issues

• can be difficult to measure or operationalise

What are the key characteristics or science as a belief system

• Makes claims based upon empirical, observable evidence

• claims to be objective and reliable

• studies cause and effect

How does science challenge religion

• Darwins theory of evolution

• Galileo’s findings using his telescope

What are contemporary issues and problems with science today?

• Drug companies are motivated by profit

• feminists argue that science is male stream and patriarchal as women’s achievements have been overlooked in history

• the role os science in war, surveillance and climate crisis

What is an ideology?

Refers to a set of ideas and beliefs which may distort reality in the interests of powerful groups like ruling class creates false class consciousness.

what are key characteristics of ideology as a belief system

• may be secular or religion

• do not need empirical evidence to assert their claims and are not interested in objectivity

• Beliefs generally apply to one group so they are exclusive

• want social and political change so are usually radical movements

how do ideologies challenge religion and science?

argue that religion and science are run by powerful groups who shape peoples ideas to suit the powerful

what is a religious organisation?

Groups with shared spiritual belief or religious ideology who engage in shared spiritual or religious practices and rituals

what is a church?

• clear structure and hierarchy

• larger membership

• strongly linked to the state

• mostly attracting middle class members but open to everyone and inclusive

• positive and tolerant attitude to wider society

• claim the monopoly of truth

what is a sect?

• Everyone is equal, no real organisation but one single charasmatic leader

• requires strong commitment like donating a percentage of wages or withdrawing from society as a whole

• hostile towards other religions/ wider society

• don’t accept mainstream values and claim the monopoly of the truth

• often appeal to relatively deprived or marginalised groups who feel something is missing

What is a cult?

• less structured, no hierarchy or organisation

• smaller membership than churches

• no link to the state

• still mostly attracting middle class members

• very tolerant of wider society and other religions

• focus on self-fulfilment and success

What is a denomination?

• something between a sect and a church

• no links to the state

• some level of commitment is required like restrictions on alcohol

• focused on more spirituality

• tolerant of other religions, no monopoly of truth claimed

• appeals to those who feel disillusioned with mainstream churches

What are the new religious movements typology?

• world rejecting

• world affirming

• world accommodating

world rejecting

• groups which claim the monopoly of the truth and are hostile to wider society, rejecting the culture of mainstream society

• Peoples temple, heaven gate

World affirming

• groups which are positive about mainstream society and aim to help individuals be successful within it. which is done via self improvement and understands of the links between mind, body and spirit

• Yoga and meditation

World accommodating

• groups which are neither positive or negative about wider society and the real world. More focused on their spiritual and religious experiences and lifestyles

• Neo- pentecostalism

what are new age movements

• new psychoiogy

• new ecology

• new science

new psychoiogy

• Movements which focus on spirituality and self improvement or understanding through spiritual means

• yoga, meditation, mediumship, astrology

New ecology

• movements which see the environment as sacred and in need of protection and conservation

• Veganism, recycling, WICCA

New science

• using methods of practise medicine and healing and claims of scientific evidence for supernatural phenomena or supernatural explanations

• Herbalism, homeopathy, UFO

Examples of religious organisations

• The peoples temple

• Heavens gate

• Church of Scientology

• Astrology

what are the reasons for the appeal of different religious organisations

• marginalisation and relative deprivation

• status frustration

• emphasis on individualism

• feel more successful

• justification of powerful position

Marginalisation and relative depression

• Weber argued that sect are likely to emerge among marginalised groups as they suffer from relative deprivation and feel isolated from being able to participate in wider society

• Marginalised groups join as they then can join a tight-knit community of others with a share experience

• often offer a theodicy of disprivileged (an explanation for suffering)

Status frustration

• Young people may experience a sense of powerless and lack of status in society due to being neither adult nor child. (status frustration)

• can be more seen within working-class who may not be able to gain status at school due to educational underachievement

• Wallis argues that it may wear off as young people move into adulthood and status frustration disappears

Emphasis on individualism

• Young people might find world affirming NRM, Nam and cults appealing as they are more likely to be interested in pursuing their individual needs due to growing individualism in postmodern society.

• Sugarcane argues that individulalism is a middle-class value and the middle classes might follow such movements for this emphasis on the self.

What are the reason for decline of traditional religions?

• liberal values

• globalisation

• low of faith in metanarratives

• commitment

• disenchantment

• science and rationalisation

Liberal values

growth of liberal values and diversity may lead some to turn away from traditional religions which they may view as less tolerant

Globalisation

multicultural societies and the growth of media have exposed people to new religious ideas which may mean they turn away from traditional religions

Loss of faith in metanarratives

Postmodernists argue that people are losing faith in both science and traditional religion as explanations for phenomena

commitment

Traditional religions often require a certain amount of commitment like attending services and prayer. Peoples lives are busier today so commitment is dwindling

Disenchanment

Weber argued that following industrialisation and the enlightenment, our interest in the magical and mystical has declined

Science and rationalisation

Following disenchantment Weber also noted that people are turning towards science and rational, evidence-based explanations for phenomena over religious ones.

Reasons for growth of NRMS and NAMS

• filling the vacuum

• Identify creation

• globalisation

• Decline in traditional religion

• social change

Social change

• postmodernity has been characterised by rapid social change and people may find they need the security and support of NAM’s and NRM’s

• People feel as though churches are experiencing social change like watering down their beliefs to fit with a more tolerant society making NRM’s more appealing

Globalisation

• technology has increased, space and time have been compressed meaning people have access to a whole range of ideas and religious organisations around the world

• The growth in social media and digital media enables people to pick and mic belief which suit their needs and interests

• May be more appealing than traditional religions which expect higher levels of commitment and claim the monopoly of the truth

Identity creation

• Heelas (1996) argues that in a postmodern society traditional resources for creating identity such as gender, social class and ethnicity are changing and becoming harder to define.

• People turn to NRM’s and NAM’s as a clearer source of identity

What are functionalist view on religion?

• positive view and religion benefits society

• Promotes value consensus and moral order

• contributes to the functioning of society as a whole

• take a focus on what religion does for society

What is marxism view on religion?

• critical view

• used by the working class as a cushion to their oppression

• Religion is used by the ruling class as an instrument of oppression to brainwash the working class to accept poverty and inequality within society

• capitalist economy influences and shapes religious beliefs and ideas.

• Religion as an ideological state apparatus also reproduces and legitimises the ruling class ideology and inequality between the classes

Evidence to support traditional marxist view

• Leach notes that the Church of England support the upper class and does little to reduce inequality. 80% of bishops attended independent schools and oxbridge

• Bruce points out how in USA the new Christian right support is given to right wing political candidates in the Republican Party

neo-marxist view on religion

• Share the same view that the economy plays an important role in shaping society but argue that other insitutions like religion may actually play a role in challenging capitalist society

• Religion may have relative autonomy from the economy

What is feminist view on religion

• reinforces patriarchy as it stops women from questioning society (radical feminism)

• It is liberating and brainwashes women, blames women for evil, free women from patriarchal (liberating)

What is social action theory view on society

• its all about globalisation and what you believe in

• helps people make sense of the world

• critical of other theoretical approaches for ignoring the meaning religion holds for individuals and how this can impact their day- day actions and lifestyles

What is post modernists view on religion

• individuals are given the choice to pix and mix beliefs to suit their own needs and identities

What did Durkheim say about religion (functionalism)

• main function of religion is to divide the world into the sacred and the profane

• For society to function successfully there needs to be value consensus and by distinguishing between the sacred and the profane religion creates value consensus by ensuring agreement on what is seen as sacred.

• this agreement then contributes to social solidarity and a collective conscience

What did Maduro say about religion? (Neo-marxist)

• found that developing countries where church and religion remain dominant with some hegemonic influence

• Religion has the power to create social change

• Places like Latin America members of the clergy have the power to voice and reflect the proletariats experience of opression

• Church leads the working class to join together and overthrow the ruling class.

What are radical feminist think about religion?

• is an instrument of domination and oppression to reinforce patriarchy and stereotypical ideas for women

• see religion as a product of patriarchal ideology rather than capitalist ideology.

• conservative force reflecting a patriarchal ideology which justifies, reinforces and reproduces inequality based on male dominance and control of women by men

What do liberal feminist think about religion?

• see religion as liberating

• some argue that religion can make women feel empowered, valued and supported

Evidence that religion is oppressive

• orthodox judaism and catholicism women are still not allowed to be priests due to unease about it (Woodhead)

• Walby women denial of power is due to religious teachings preaching women in the submissive motherly role- christianity Virgin Mary is idolised

Evidence that religion is liberating/ source of comfort

• Some religious organisations allow women to become more egalitarian, allowing people to become part of the organisation hierarchy

• Orthodox judaism meant they were removed from conflicting roles. Religion provides a sense of family and fulfilment (Woodhead)

What did Wright (1994) say about religion (liberal feminist)?

• some religions have never been patriarchal like Quakerism. They believe in a totally egalitarian and democratic organisational structures

What did Woodhead (2007) say about religion (liberal feminist)?

• Argues that new age religions and activities appeal much more to women and enable them to gain self- esteem and self -worth in an otherwise patriarchal world.

What did Weber (1864-1920) say about religion? (social action theory)

• focus less on the role and function of religions for society as a whole but more about the meanings that individuals attach to religious beliefs and practises

• most known for his research ‘protestant ethic thesis’ and the rise of protestantism and its effect on economic behaviour and social change.

What did Berger say about religion? (social action theory)

• argues that religion provides a universe of meaning and sacred canopy

sacred canopy

• religion acts as a sacred canopy stretching over society and protecting individuals from uncertainties, meaninglessness and pointlessness of life by helping them interpret and make sense of the world and their position within it

• Berger argues without religion life would be meaningless for many individuals (referred to as homeless mind) does recognise that these functions of religion may been lost in contemporary society

Universe of meaning

• religion provides a universe of meaning in that invidious use religion as a source of meaning to help them make sense of the world.

• includes giving answers to questions about life, death and the existence of things like poverty, evil and injustice.

What features do postmodernist argue have pushed us into an era of postmodernity?

• individuation

• rejection of grand mete narratives

• globalisatoin

• chosen identities

• loss of faith in science

what do postmodernist argue has pushed religion to change?

• religion diversity and pluralism has increased and traditional religions have declined

• religion no longer provides social solidarity as there is such diversity of beliefs

What did Hervieu-Leger say with religion? (postmodernism)

• argues that religious participation has changed in the postmodern era

• argues we have seen a decline in traditional religious institutions as children are no longer socialised into religious beliefs and participation

• argues that instead religion has become a personal choice for individuals rather than an inherited, fixed identity

• Because of this individuals have become spiritual shoppers and are consumers with choices about the religious beliefs and practises we choose to engage with and choose what fits with out chosen identities and lifestyles

What did Bauman say (postmodernist)

• postmodernity has led to a crisis of meaning

• there is no longer a stable sense of morality and no universal truths about the universe and its meaning, due to increased diversity and fragmantation of beliefs and values and decline in collective values

• People are in crisis of meaning and are looking for moral guidance and how to live their lives so turn to religion to provide meaning and moral guidance in an uncertain world.

How is religion a conservative force?

religion is viewed by some as a means of keeping society the same, in some cases maintaining traditional values and beliefs

How is religion a revolutionary force?

Religion is viewed by some as a tool which can be used to create change in society

How is religion a source of stability?

Religion maintains social order and keeps society running smoothly

How is religion a source of conflict?

Religion creates disagreement between social groups leading to disorder and inequality

Who agrees that religion can cause change or instability?

• Neo marxism, religion can be used to challenge capitalism. said by Althusser and madito

• Liberal feminist, orthodox fundaism, church of england. Said women can be priests and bishops

• Weber and Calvinism say it challenges people to live a specific lifestyle due to fear of not be predestination

Who agrees that religion is a conservative force and keeps things the way they are

• functionalism, social solidarity, value consensus, collective conscienceness. Said by Durkheim and Parsons

• Marxism, Keeps the working class under false class consciencenees, spiritualism mark and lein

• Radical feminism, keeps women oppressed. Talaq law on a customs veiling on women

How is religion a conservative force and a source of stability?

• maintains social solidarity and status quo keeping society structure and values the same some see status quo as positive (functionalism) others negative and conflict ridden (marxists and feminists)

• Religion maintains conservative, traditional beliefs and values

Who sees religion as a conservative force?

• functionalists

• Durkheim argued that religion is used to maintain social solidarity through collective worship this then reinforces social solidarity

What did Parsons argue?

• religion is used as a mechanism of adjustment in time of uncertainty. this maintains social solidarity by giving people a sense of certainty amongst chaos

How do the new right/ christian right use to break their concerns with then moral breakdown of society?

• use religion as a force for maintaining traditional values

What did weber research and what did he say about religion being a revolutionary force and a source of social change?

• he researched the Calvinist brand of Protestantism and how it led to the development of capitalism

• found that capitalism developed mostly in Western Europe but failed in places like china and India, because these countries had the economic and technological means for capitalism to thrive

• Concluded that capitalism had developed in western europe due to Calvinist beliefs which reinforced values which enabled capitalism to thrive and therefore religion had led to social change

what are the three main Calvinist beliefs?

• pre- destination

• aesthetic lifestyle

• god given duty

How did these three beliefs shape daily lives?

• resulted in their drive to work hard to create profit

• This profit cannot be spent on a lavish life-style and instead had to be reinvested to create more profit.

• Weber concluded therefore these religious beliefs created economic social change in the form of the development of capitalism

Arguments agaisnts Weber research?

• Weber also concluded that capitalism is not an inevitable consequence of Calvinist beliefs

• Found that Scotland had the appropriate beliefs and values for capitalism to thrive but did not have the right economic conditions as they didn’t have any money to invest or technology to build factories

• therefore religion alone did not lead to the development of capitalism

How useful is Webers contributions to our understanding of religion as a revolutionary force?

• Shows that religion can motivate social change

• weber emphasize the role of protestantism in capitalism rise

• connects religious beliefs to economic outcomes

• thinks about how beliefs drive actions in society

• religion as a catalyst for social transformation

What did Woodhead argue about religion? (liberal feminism)

• religion can offer individual women escape from the dural burden by giving them clear traditional role and status within the family.

What did Watson say about religion? (liberal feminism)

• argues that the hijab protects muslim women from the patriarchal male gaze

What did Aldridge say about religion (liberal feminsm)?

• argues that women-only religious environments such as nunneries can provide women an escape from patriarchal marriage, especially in societies where lesbianism was socially unacceptable.

Is religion conservative or radical?

• McGuire said that religion can lead to social change but only under the right conditions and makes an important contribution to the social change debate.

• Recognises that religion can act as a force for social change but only if under the right circumstances are in place.

• Recognises that not all religions are the same and not all societies are as susceptible to change as others

What did McGuire argue are the 4 key factors that influence whether or not religion can lead to social change?

• the beliefs and practises of the religion

• culture of the society

• organisations relationships to society

• presence of a centralised authority

The belief and practises of the religion

• some religion organisations have strong moral codes which are critical of society and therefore seek to change it. (Christianity)

• others are less concerned with this world and more centred on the spiritual and are less interested in making change (Buddishim)

The culture of the society

• in societies where religious beliefs are central to the culture, religion mat be used as a justification for any social change

• Latent America religion is central in

• Britain religion is less central in

The organisations relationships to society

• Some religious organisations are must more central to the cultural, political and economic life of a society. More likely to produce social change as they are more influential

• Churches have a strong relationships to wider society. Organisations like cults have less influence

The presence of a centralised authority

• in times where it has led to social change there has been a charismatic leader to lead the revolution and condemn the existing society.

Can religion promote radical change and conservative values at the same time?

• Some cases religion can be both a conservative force and a force for social change. Can occur when religion is used to promote change in society in terms of a return to conservative and traditional value.

What are fundamentalist?

• individuals who taking literal interpretations of religion to return to tradition

• have a desire to return to traditional values and the literal interpretation of religious texts

• opposes the growth of liberal values globally and the increased tolerance of diversity and choice of lifestyle

Examples of west fundamentalists?

• ISIS

• Al Qaeda

Examples of christian fundamentalists?

• Westboro baptist church, who have opposed the growth of liberal values by protesting at the funeral of soldiers

Conservative force

when religion discourages social change or reinforces traditional values

Revolutionary force

another term for religion promoting change

Social solidarity

Durkheim felt that religion promotes this and therefore maintains stability in society

Pre-destination

Calvinists believe that your life is already decided by god

Mechanism of adjustment

Person argues religion preforms this function which reinforces stability in times of uncertainty and change

Liberation theology

the religious justification for the freedom of oppressed peoples

Liberal values

set of values which are tolerant of choice, freedom and diversity

What is the ageing affect

• Voas and Crockett argue that older people are more likely to attend Church of England services than young people

• May be due to the fact they have more time and being retired swell as being a way of retaining a community and social ties

• Elder people are more likely to believe in life after death

The generational affect

• older people were socialised at a time when religion was popular and prominent. due to secularisation that isn’t the case anymore

• Children today are less likely to be socialised into one religion by education systems or parents

• Voas and Crockett argue that the generational effect is the most significant factor influencing patterns of religiosity between age groups

Why are women more religious than men?

• women’s role in the family: Miller and Hoffman suggest that women are seen as the guardian of family life and attending church an other religious activities have been seen as part of the women’s role in instilling moral codes in their children

• Women are out of employment leaving them with more time for religious activities during the week

• Gender secularisation: Bruce noted that males and females are socialised differently with females encouraged to develop their emotional and nurturing side and then encouraged more to consider and be involved with issues of morality which are embedded in religion

Why are ethnic minority groups more religious?

• cultural defence and identity: Bruce argues that religion may provide support and provide a sense of identity in response to the uncertainty and potential hostility and racism face when joining a new society

• cultural transition: can ease the transition into a new culture it can help others settle by providing very practical support

• social deprivation, marginalisation and stauts frustration: They are often disproportionately amongst the poor and disadvantaged, religion may provide an explanation for this (theodicy of disprivledge Weber) also provides a sense of hope and belonging which can restore pride

what is secularisation

the process in which religious thinking, practise and institutions lose social significance