The Crimean War (1854-56)

(a) What is the background behind the Crimean War?

-the Crimean War was about power,control and fear
-in the first 50 years of 19th century, Russian empire doubled its size in Europe
-advancement of Russia was a threat to Britain as British interests in India threatened
-tsar of Russia regarded the Turkish empire as weak and likely to collapse and he wanted Russia to have it
-problem was Turkey controlled the exit from the Black sea to the mediterranean and the world
-Britain determined to prevent Turkey from collapsing as needed this area in 'safe hands' and they were the key to maintaining their trade routes to Britain

(a) How did the Crimean War start?

-started when the tsar sent prince Menshikov to Constantinople to insist on Russia's rights to protect orthodox christians
-Russian gov said if Turkish troops did not withdraw from Montenegro, they would occupy provinces bordering River Danube
-Britain and France heard threats and decided to intervene
-tsar ordered Russian troops to attack-Sultan declared war on Russia
-allies move in by mid-June and convinced that Sevastapol had to be taken + Russian fleet destroyed
-gov ordered Lord Raglan to invade Crimea

(a) How prepared were Britain for war?

1. Recent Military Experience
-wars in India and Burma against poorly armed opposition had reinforced old ways
-British army had not fought a major European battle since Waterloo (1815)
-had fought colonial wars but these made them overconfident (like recent successes at China Opium Wars)
2.British Style of Warfare
-style hardly changed since French wars
-infantry in line firing muskets with artillery support and cavalry with swords at the gallop
-firearms and uniform identical to Waterloo
3.British Weapons
-infantry in line firing muskets
-firearms same as French wars
-'French Minie Rifle' gave Britian and France(now allies) an advantage-3x the range of Russian weapon,more accurate,inflict serious wounds
4.Support Service Shortcomings
-support services changed little since French Wars
-the commissariat, which arranged food,supplies and transport still largely dependent on civilian contractors which not always efficient and sometimes fraudalent
-war also revealed shortcomings in army leadership: lack of professionalism, among officers, inability of units to communicate and co operate, inadequacy of medical treatment, shortages of decent food+shelter for soldiers-all brought into focus in the Crimea

(b) What was the British army of 1854 like?

1.based on voluntary service
2.90% of soldiers enlisted as a result of unemployment or starvation:term of service=20 years,minimum enlistment age=17
3.officer corps dominated by the aristocracy and landed classes-officers purchased their commissions
4.crushing discipline and routine
5.weapons,tactics and uniforms unchanged since Waterloo: soldiers wore red tunics and trained to fight in dense formations

(b) What was the purchasing of commissions?

-until 1870, the usual way for an officer of the cavalry or infantry to obtain his commission was by purchase which was buying their rank/position
-this meant higher ranked officers not skilled/experienced
-disorganised army

(b) Why was purchasing of commissions a problem?

-absurd for someone with no formal training in war to actually pay to lead a company
-a black market existed
-changes in tactics and war technology began to demand certain amounts of formal training
-the purchase system needed to be replaced by a professionally trained and paid army for more bureaucratic armies with direct monitoring

(b) Why keep the system then?

-preserved social exclusibity of the officer class
-ensured that officers had private means and unlikely to engage in looting or pillaging or to cheat the soldiers under their command by engaging in profiteering using army supplies
-provided honourably retired officers with immediate source of capital

(b) What was the impact of the purchasing of commissions upon the Crimean War?

-inexperienced officers in leadership roles which affected the overall effectiveness/efficiency of the military
-this was evident in the Crimean War where lack of capable leadership contributed to military setbacks
-this highlighted the need for military reforms
-one example of a military setback was during Battle of Balaclava(1854)-charge of the light brigade led by lord cardigan highlighted consequences of having officers in command based on wealth rather than military competence
-Cardigan's leadership criticised for tactical errors that led to disastrous charge that resulted in significant casualties for the British forces

(c) What happened at the Battle of Alma and what was its impact?

-Sept 20 1854
KEY EVENTS
-Allies(Britain,France,Ottoman empire) VS Russia
-Raglan VS Menshikov
-allies land on Crimean Peninsula and face Russian army near River Alma
-russians positioned on elevated ground, giving them defensive advantage
-but allies outnumbered Russians and had advantage in naval gunfire, but the battle was confused
-little coordination between British+ French
-unsure of what French were doing, lord Raglan ordered infantry to lie down to minimise casualties from Russians
-battle revealed shortcomings in allied leadership/organisation but they eventually succeeded in outflanking the Russians
STRATEGY/TACTICS:
-allies utilised a flanking maneuver to outflank Russian positions
-allies coordinated attacks to assault the Russian lines simultaneously
IMPACT:
-secured control over southern coast of criman peninsula-ally victory
-significant causalties for both sides
-boosted morale of allies
-set stage for subsequent Siege of Sevastopol

(c) What happened at the Battle of Balaklava and what was its impact?

-25 Oct 1854
-allies caution allowed Menshikov to move russian army to occupy the causeway heights, overlooking Balaklava
-this was a threat to the harbour and the road to Sevastapol
-the allies recalled troops from the siege
-the fighting at Balaklava gave rise to 3 actions famous in British military history:
1. The 'Thin Red Line':
-Menshikov sent Russian cavalry forward after witnessing Turks retreating
-this thin red line refers to the 93rd Highland Regiment which held a crucial position against a Russian cavalry charge
-as cavalary approached, the 93rd formed a line, and due to the terrain, it appeared as a thin red streak
-they stood their ground and repelled russian cavalry charge
-now this phrase beome symbol for courage
2. The Charge of the Heavy Brigade:
-General Lucan orered 2 brigades to charge Russians uphill and russians retreated inexplicably-had russians gallopped downhill results would be different
3. The Charge of the Light Brigade:
-infamous mishap
-Raglan wanted Lucan to stop Russians taking turkish guns captured on the heights
-Raglan ordered Nolan to tell Lucan to send in Cardigan's cavalry
-his order was vague as Nolan disliked Lucan-no clear discussion
-only guns Lucan could see were Russian at the end of the valley surrounded by enemy fire
-Cardigan asked for clarification as knew cost of such charge
-Lucan insisted it was Raglan's orders
-cavalry took heavy fire from all sides-Nolan killed
-113 out of 673 killed,134 wounded
-immense impact
-became emblematic of leadership problems/poor communication in Crimea
-Raglan blamed,Lucan replaced

(c) What were the debates surrounding the Charge of the Light Brigade?

-Raglan's orders not specific -if Raglan meant Turkish guns, Lucan could not see them and Nolan did not explain
-Nolan may have assumed Raglan meant Russian guns, but he was killed so unable to clarify things later
-Lucan + Nolan barely spoke,mutual dislike
-neither made effort to check what Raglan intended
-it was an avoidable mistake that took many casualties just because of miscommunication
-was a death warrant as Russians surrounding the valley and Britian no chance of winning

(c) What happened at the Siege of Sevastopol and what was its impact?

Sept 1854-Sept 1855
-allies had laid siege to Russian port of Sevastopol(their prime objective) since they first landed in Crimea
-in response, Russians fought hard to check the advance and relieve Sevastopol
-Nov 1854-they attacked the British at Inkerman-but British won
-losses heavy so assault on Sevastopol postponed
-Siege army now faced a Crimean winter
-Nov 1854:worst storms in living memory-allied camps wrecked, ships carrying supplies sunk,soldiers suffered from cold,hunger,disease
-spring 1855: improvement-new raiilway built linking Balaklava to camps around Sevastopol-Russians couldn't send relief to Sevastopol so their men's who were defending the port morale suffered
-allies planned fresh attack in spring aiming at 4 strongpoints-both armies dug trenches to protect positions
-French took Mamelon fort June 1855, allies bombarded Russians
-Sevastopol new kind of battle,fought by engineers,artillery gunners and use of trenches by infantry
-Sept 1855:allies at last took Sevastopol
-French took Malakoff,British captured little Redan
-allies had high ground so Russians evacuated Sevastopol
-diplomatic arguements continued until March 1856 when Treaty of Paris ended the war
-tactics:trench warfare,naval blockade,assaults on fortifications,use of rifles and muskets and artillery bombardment

(c) What happened at the Battle of Inkerman and what was its impact?

Nov 5 1854
-surprise attack on allied forces
-fog played significant role in limiting visibility
-close-quarters combat
-hand to hand fighting
-French and British,despite being taken by surprise, managed to hold their ground and repel Russian assault
Tactics:
-strategic high ground
-close-quarter combat
Impact:
-high casualties
-strategic stalemate-neither side gained strategic advantage
-successful defence by allies, despite the surprise attack-boosted morale among the troops

(d) Why were Raglan and the army ineffective in the Crimean War?

1. Raglan was not afraid to commit his men to danger-he was reckless-The charge of the Light Brigade could've been prevented if he was more precise/impulsive

2. He underestimated how hard it'd be to capture Sevastopol which meant allies were left out-gunned by the Russians-even when his troops died of disease and starvation, Raglan didn't retreat to Balaklava

3.army was badly supplied and ill-equipped

4.Raglan didn't care about his troops

5.Raglan set on old ways, influenced by Wellington,trained infantry in old disciplines

-work of Nightingale,sanitary commission etc,drew public attention to shortcomings of the Crimean War-influenced subsequent army reform

(e) What is Florence Nightingale's background?

1820-1910
-born to a wealthy family
-educated by her father
-academic child, expected to make a good marriage
-persuaded her parents to allow her to undertake 3 months nursing training
-father gave her £500 a year for life which allowed her to live independently
-appointed to oversee the introduction of nurses at military hospital in Turkey
-arrived at Scutari Nov 1854

(e) How did Nightingale's wealthy background impact the perception of nurses?

-nursing seen as a lowly job-no training,poor conditions and 'uneducated drinkers'
-nightingale from a wealthy background conflicted with the idea that nurses were 'uneducated' and 'working class'

(e) What were the problems at Scutari?

1. limited medical staff as Raglan needed space on transport ships for soldiers/horses
2. medical supplies low priority-taken off hospital ships so vessels could be used as troop transport
3. staffing unsatisfactory
4. soldiers themselves carrying out work of stretcher-bearers and nursing-not suited for the work
5. wounded men would nurse one another
6. barely any doctors
7. Scutari barracks for Turks-not designed for sick/wounded
8.hardly any clean water
9. toilet arrangements inadequate

(e) What was Nightingale's impact at Scutari?

-when she arrived she faced resentment by the doctors
1. she reorganised the kitchen and improved food for patients
2. cleaned wards, strove to provide clean,washed bedlinen
3. arranged a schoolroom and library
4. sent some men with minor wounds to grow vegetables in hospital grounds
5. worked long hours, would do ward rounds with her lamp when staff slept-created the image of her as the 'caring lady with the lamp'
6. tough administrator-supposed to be only in charge of nurses but her opinions got her into disagreements with senior medical officer, Dr Menzies and Dr Hall

-Mary Clayton( a nurse) found Scutari to be horrible where no one trusted each other or spoke well of eachother

(e) What impact did Nightingale's work being reported in Britain have?

1. she became a celeb
2. she was the subject of popular songs, poetry and a wax figure at Madame Tussaud's in London
3. newspapers carried stories of her heroism
4. friendship with Times correspondent William Russell, gave her access to influential ppl
-the Times organised a fund that raised £30,000 to buy medical supplies

(e) What was the Sanitary Commission?

-1855 new PM Palmerston elected
-Nightingale lost her ally gov minister Herbert but Palmerston also a supporter of hers
-new war minister ordered sanitary commission to Crimea
-McNeill and Tuloch shocked at conditions
-clean up was ordered:rubbish cleared, walls whitewashed, dead animals removed
-doctors and nurses didn't yet know infection and causes of disease(Nightingale blamed sickness on bad air)
-a London chef improved food for patients
-Nightingale worked hard to improve supply of medicine
-mortality rates fell among patients

(e) What was the Nightingale Effect?

1. Nightingale frequently at odds with nurses esp indepenent-minded ones like Elizabeth Davis and Nightingale went to Balaklava against her wishes
2.complained that her work was being undermined by nursing indiscipline and attitude
3. McNeill Tuloch report confirmed Nightingale's claims of army failings, even so Dr Hall got a knighthood and continued criticising Nightingale
4. Nightingale's work divided opinions- some supported her and the improvements she made, while others said there was an increase in death rates after her arrival suggesting her work was less effective than the sanitary commission who actually helped
5. her impatience with colleagues caused problems
6. by the time men reached Scutari they were mostly beyond help, so Nightingale's work was a hopeless case as although her efforts to improve nutrition and supply improved conditions it ultimately didn't save lives

(e) What is Nightingale's legacy?

1. became a legend as the 'Angel of the Crimea'
2. spent rest of her life campaigning for reforms to army medical services and nursing
3. she was an advocate for improvements in hospital design and nurse training and became a role model for Victorian women who before had little prospect of a career in medicine
4. when returned from Crimea, she argued for a full inquiry, and contributed to the Royal commission on the health of the army in 1857
5. 1855, public meeting decided rather than gifting money raised through public subscription to Nightingale, to set up a fund too train nurses-the fund raised £45,000 and a nurse training school set up at St Thomas hospital London
6. new hospital opened on Albert embankment London 1861 and its 'Nightingale Wards' design became common in other British hospitals
7.took little public part in this legacy work as she lived as an invalid from late 1850s-1910, bipolar disorder etc
8. she still campaigned from her sick bed and in 1859 published 'Notes on Nursing'-a manual for training of nurses(still in print today)
9. her use of patient-mortality stats recognised by Royal Statistical society
10. Florence Nightingale Foundation (1939) continues to promote her ideals

(f) Who was Mary Seacole and what was her background?

-jamaican, biracial
-her mother was a 'doctress'- taught Seacole her folk remedies
- her medicine was less enduring than Nightingale's
-she actually was on the front lines
-faced classism,sexism and racism
-1853, Jamaican authorities asked her to return home to help combat an outbreak of yellow fever-evidence that her reputation for effective treatment in emergency situations was recognised
-turned down as a nurse at Scutari for being mixed race- undeterred she went to Crimea independently

(f) What arguments can be made that Seacole made more of an impact on the army and nursing than Nightingale?

1. Seacole and Day's 'British Hotel' was a part hotel, part store and part clinic where soldiers could enjoy hot food and shelter
-the hotel was popular with officers and soldiers who were drawn by prospects of better quality food , chance to buy clothing and shoes
-french chef Soyer impressed that Seacole fed men better than the army and they became friends
-after breakfast she would care for the sick and wounded using her folk medicine experience
2. unlike Nightingale she'd visit the battlefield carrying first aid supplies and would treat the wounded/dying
3. Reputedly the first woman on the allied side into the city after the Russians withdrew
4. When her business in the army town of Aldershot failed, a letter to the Times newspaper and a poem published in the Punch magazine appealed to the public to not let her efforts be forgotten
5. produced a book of memoirs in 1857
6. Although not formally trained, she was an excellent medic-her reputation was so well known in the Caribbean that she was asked to return to Jamaica in 1853 to deal with outbreak of yellow fever
7. racist views of her abilities have led to her not being as well-known/celebrated as Nightingale

(f) What arguments can be made that Nightingale made more of an impact on the army and nursing than Seacole?

1. Became a legend as the 'Angel of the Crimea' and spent rest of her life campaigning for reforms to army medical services and nursing
2. advocated for improvements in hospital design and nurse training-became a role model for Victorian women
3. Fund set up to train nurses in 1855-raised £45,000 by 1859
4. Nurses training school set up at St Thomas hospital
5. new hospital on Albert Embankment-Nightingale wards common in british hospitals all over
6. her use of patient mortality statistics recognised by RSS
-florence nightingale foundation continues to promote her ideals

(f) Therefore what can be concluded about the impact these two women had?

-Seacole more of an impact on the army
-Nightingale more of an impact on nursing
-Nightingale's work received great publicity at home
-Seacole after brief period forgotten
-Nightingale returned to strengthen argument got reform of army medical services-met Queen Victoria and had fame and influence
-Nightingale had access to influential ppl/had connections so could have a voice if she raised it
-Seacole in no post-Crimea discussions-her work largely forgotten until late 20th century
-before Nightingale and Seacole, nurses were seen as criminals or alcoholics
-after Nightingale, nursing became a profession and for many years she was most significant woman in British nursing history
-Seacole's work in Crimea extensively revisited
in 2004 voted greatest Black Briton
-historians disagree with talks to statue her at St Thomas hospital in London as she wasn't a hospital nurse, this is inaccurate and doesn't do justice to her overall achievement

(g) What do Roger Fenton's Crimean War photographs represent?

One of the earliest attempts to document a war through photography

(g) What do his pictures show?

-pictures show war in a good light
-calm time even though it was a war/shows no struggle
-shows upper middle class view of war/officers/higher ranked
-trying to suggest war is not bad-no damage,destruction,death
-photos not reliable-very staged-clearly trying to show a certin narrative
-trying to show war in positive light to promote war

(g) What were the problems with his photographs?

1. only one person taking pictures so only one view-bias
2.one person cannot be everywhere at once, so limited overview of war
3. Fenton had social connections with Prince Albert who believed photos might help counter some of the negative newpaper press about the conduct of the war-so fenton may have felt pressured to show Britian doing well in the war
4.Fenton told to take pics that would sell-main markets would be servicemen with families who'd buy the photos as souvenirs(these men mostly from wealthy background)
5. primitive camera equipmment meant photos were staged,posed of motionless ppl or landscapes
6.photos of injury/death wouldn't be welcomed by purchasers so didn't take them
7.Fenton wasn't present for any of the major battles or the winter of 1854-5-didn't witness the horrors/hardships
-photos would deceive public into thinking men were fine

(g) What was the impact of Fenton's war photographs?

1. exhibited his photos around Britain for 8 months
-large numbers attended due to interest in the war
-most of their views of war was formed through dramatic,idealised paintings so Fenton's stark realism had massive impact on popular perception
2. landscape photos showed how barren the Crimea was and portraits of men in front of tents couldn't hide the squalid living conditions
3. Fenton's photos provided a connection between subject and viewer, giving rise to a wave of empathy for soldiers
4. ppl began to question not just how the war was being managed but what it was being fought for

(h) How is the Crimean War remembered?

1. first major war to have newspaper and photograph reportage hit tables of Victorian MC
2. a war that raised doubts about competence of aristocratic elite running the British army and effiency of British gov

(h) Who was William Russell?

-The Times correspondent
-The Times knew reports of the war would be of huge interest so sent correspondents Russell and Chenery stationed @ Constantinople mostly
-Russell sent to the Crimea with the 1st wave of allied forces
-he witnessed the Battle of Alma first hand and this report featured concerns that soon became common with his other ones
-by getting close to the fighting, he was able to convey the horrors
-he was interested in the treatment of the wounded, brutality of battlefield surgery and the preparations made for evauating casualties
-he made unfavourable comparisons between British army medical service and the better equipped French
-critical of Raglan for keeping position on battlefield after the Alma rather than pursuing defeated Russians and driving them away from Sevastopol
-he was an affable man with knack of getting people to talk to him
-stayed in Crimea for opening months of Siege of Sevastopol,Balaklava and Inkerman-left in Dec 1855

(h) What impact did Russell's writing have on the conduct of the war?

His reports exposed the harsh conditions and inefficiencies in British military and medical practices.This influenced the conduct of the Crimean War and later wars.

(h) How important was Russell's writing in shaping opinions on Britain?

-sparked public outrage
-had massive impact on galvanizing public sentiment and played crucial role in bringing about reform in military and medical practices
-contributed to increased accountability and awareness in British gov/military

(h) What is significant about the coverage of the war provided by Fenton and Russell?

-Fenton captured iconic photos that visually documented the war, providing a lasting historical record
-although his photos were staged they conveyed the realities of the conflict
-vital for historians studying the Crimean War
-Russell used his writing to convey the human experience and challenges faced by the soldiers
-his reports published in the Times, instrumental in shaping public opinion and influencing reforms in military and medical practices

-together their accounts offered a comprehensive portrayal of the war-contributing to broader understanding of its impact on both soldiers and the home front

(h) What was the impact of the reporting on public opinion?

-newspapers drew attention to specific events and issues, and ran campaigns relating to them
-influential groups in society put pressure on the army and the gov to make changes
-electors wrote to their MPs
-MPs were of electors feelings and put pressure on cabinets
-on 29 Jan 1855, lord Aberdeen's gov was heavily defeated in a vote regarding the war and resigned

(h) What was the influence of The Times?

-correspondents allowed to freely roam of allied-held territory
-had opportunity to uncover things authorities were wished hidden
-unlike Fenton, Russell on the side of the ordinary soldier and wrote about the appalling conditions
-Raglan told officers to not talk to Russell
-The Times sick and wounded fund raised thousands and Russell's reports stirred public consciousness and played major part in campaign's success

(h) What was the public reaction in Britain?

-initially had huge impact on public response to the war
-in Britain, the war caused some limited political change but despite vocal public criticisms during 1854-5 the newspapers passed on to other events and outrage was forgotten
-however, it revealed the power of the press and led to calls for greater efficiency in military and gov management
-after the Crimean War, politicians had to give more attention to the press

(h) What were the different areas that Russell reported and what was impact of these?

1. Military leadership
-reporting of the campaign highlighted leadership as aristocratic, unprepared and efficient
-impact: some damage to reputations of Raglan, Lucan, Cardigan, and Nolan. Some long awaited reforms by 1868. Little change to aristocratic influence
2. Military supply
-failed badly in winter 1854-55
-impact: improvements in 1855-56. Organisational changes after the war
3. Military healthcare
-failed badly through most of the war
-impact: improvements to sanitation, planning and nursing from 1855
4. Political leadership
-perceived as out of touch and not in control
-impact: a change of PM and administration but not political change
5. Attitudes in society
-newspaper reporting raised questions regarding the performance of those responsible for planning and directing the campaigns
-Impact: some questioning of inherited rank as the determinant of place in hierarchy and some support for selection by merit,but no big change
6. Women and society
-women of Nightingale's class did not work: women didn't attend uni and few sought education
-impact: some widening of public understanding of what women could achieve, but little concrete change

(i) What was the impact of the press?

-newspaper coverage ensured that the public was able to read about the reality of warfare with immediacy for the 1st time
-newspapers too expensive so it catered for the literate MC and UC
-Russell most influential reporter of the Times, his reports were sharp,clear and moving
-his reports were eagerly awaited and avidly read by almost all literate ppl of London
-when he saw problems he'd report them,would credit bravery of troops

(i) What was the impact of war photography?

-Roger Fenton first official war photographer insisted by Prince Albert
-hoped his photos would counteract the anti-war reporting of 'The Times'
-due to primitive photo tech he was unable to take action shots-only posed still ones
-avoided taking pics of dead/injured soldiers
-his prints displayed in London gallery

(i) What was the impact of the press attack on Raglan?

-reports of Raglan's gross incompetence and the army's privileged leadership
-the horrors brought to light by the Times led to a bitter outcry and a search for scapegoats
-Raglan saw the personal attacks on him as unworthy of response-he had poor opinion of press
-Raglan/British gov made no efforts to get rid of the correspondents,nor impose press censorship fearing this might be interpreted as hiding from public view

(i) What was the impact of Palmerston's leadership?

-1855 Aberdeen resigned
-Palmerston replaced him and was known for his foreign diplomacy,progessive ideas and domestic reform support
-he faced parliamentary challenges but survived due to political skills and disunity among opponents
-war concerns made modest changes, including sanitation improvements,transport and bureaucratic restructuring
-addressed inefficiencies and simplified military responsibilities, enhancing the war effort
ADMINSTRATIVE REFORM(1855)
-as criticisms in parliament and press of military management grew due to Crimean war, there was demands for reform of the civil service
-many assumed problems stemmed from UC monopoly of power in all areas of gov
1. urging that business-like procedures be applied to gov
2. claimed that competitive exams would allow the MC to take over the running of the state
-these reforms not significant, nor did have much to do with the Crimean War-those with power still came from the gentry

(i) How was the war financed and what was its economic impact?

-paying for war not a problem as it was short and Britain at height of its economic power
-income tax rates doubled due to military costs of the war
-chancellor of exchequer forced to increase national debt by offering gov bonds for sale
-just under half of war's cost paid by borrowing

-by 1850, Britian was home of the world's first urban industriaised economy
-only 2% of world's population but accounted for 50% of world's trade in coal,cotton and iron
-Britain was the workshop of the world and the world's banking house
-overall, the Crimean War had little impact on the economy

(i) What was the medical impact of the Crimean War?

1. impact on medicine in Britain as Nightingale's experiences in Scutari highlighted dire need for improved hygiene and sanitation,leading to reforms in medical practices
2.Nightingale's initiatives such as the Nightingale Training School elevated nursing education
3. Nightingale's advocating for sanitary reform and nursing education not only transformed military healthcare but also had a lasting,positive influence on healthcare practices around the country

(j) What were the short-term/immediate improvements in reform?

1. Aberdeen resigned replaced by Palmerston due to ineffieciencies of Crimea
2. reduced interdepartmental bureacracy
-e.g. posts of secretary of state for war and the colonies, and secretary at war were abolished
3. new educational requirements for staff officers, helping to improve military knowledge among officers
4. Land Transport Corps established in 1855 to replace hiring local civilian wagons- became 'military train' in 1856
5. the reformed war office took central control of army medical department, the commissariat,supplies and command of gunners+ engineers

(j) What were the remaining problems even after these reforms?

1. inevitable division of power and responsibility between a commander in chief, a soldier, a civillian secretary for war continued to require diplomacy
2.despite reform of war office, no central military planning department
3. officers continued to buy commissions in fashionable regiments for another 20 years.Army remaied dominated by the aristocracy
4. size of army not addressed(too small)

(j) What was the adminstrative reform of 1854-56?

-investigation of conditions of army in June 1855 where arrangements for transport, provisioning, hospital care were criticised
-final interest in parliamentary mismanagement of Crimea came in Jan 1856 by McNeill and Tuloch
-their report criticised Raglan's personal staff etc but the report did NOT lead to reform of the commissariat in 1858

(j) Why was there a lack of impetus for military change?

1. military successes in India and waning of public disquiet over army affairs undermined the cause of the reform-parliament only gave occassional attention to army
2. Duke of Cambridge sceptical of change fearing it'd damage the morale of the army
3. Cardwell determined to abolish purchasing of commissions but failed to secure the passage of the bill through House of Lords(eventually abolished in 1871)
4. Localisation Act 1872 divided country into 66 territorial districts which was designed to foster local connections, improve efficiency of auxillary forces and induce men from militia to regular army

(j) How effective were Cardwell's reforms(1868-74)?

(-) promised for more than they delivered
(-) despite reorganisation of war office, no planning department established and no chief of staff appointed
(-) army lost more men than it gained with introduction of short-service enlistments so recruitment major problem
(-) abolition of purchasing of commissions did little to alter the class compositon of officer corps(pay poor so few officers could survive finacially if not already rich)
(-) the localisation of forces didn't transform the army.Constant need for men to serve overseas put great strain on home battalions. By Zulu War(1879) only 59 battalions at home supporting 82 abroad. For rest of century battalions at home found it V hard to supply men for abroad