AQA A-level History, Stuart Britain : Section 4 : The Establishment of a constitutional monarchy 1678 - 1702

Popish Plot

1678
Anglican priest -> Titus Oates approached london magislatate Godfrey with story of a plot organised by the jesuits and french to murder chalres II and repalce him with his brother
Oates been educated at Jesuit school in frnace & story lacked creditibity
Godfrey found dead in park & people started to believe plot
Investigations revealled one of those accused Coleman had been in correspondence with catholics
As many of public now believed his story, oates able to accuse anyone he liked next yea -> 35 catholics killed

Fall of Danby

Those suspicious of Charles growing absolutism, able to challenge Danby's power and influence
Impeachment proceeding began against Danby as evidence emerged he had been accepting french subsidies
Sent to Tower of London -remained until 1684
Charles dissolves cavalier parliament in 1679 to avoid escalation of crisis and new elections produced an anti Danby majority
MP's known as Whigs

The exclusion bill

Bill to exclude james from the throne and replace with charles illegitimate son, James Scott, Duke of Monmouth. Step to far for Charles and attempted to avoid what he saw as an attack on hereditary divine right
- dissolved parliament 1679, so exclusion bill couldn't be read by lords
- another exclusion bill presented 1680 -> defeated by lords -> under pressure from charles -> personal appearance at debates

Why did Charles survive the exclusion crisis ?

Charles saw exclusion bill as direct attack on hereditary monarchy -> showed determination
Charles able to use his prerogative powers to override parliament -> ability to delay legislation & dissolve parliament
Longer crisis continued -> fewer MP's prepared to commit, seemed catholic threat subsiding
First payment from louis reached charles 1681 -> financially independent & able to work without need to consult parliament
- decreed 1681 parliament met at oxford not Westminster -> avoid conflict
Whigs passed another exclusion bill able to dissolve parliament & arrest Shaftesbury
Charles purged Whigs form local govt

Persecution of the Whigs

Charles tarnished reputation by presenting them as republicans committed to overthrowing the monarchy
Able to bring down Whig opposition:
1. Prerogative powers -> control judiciary & remove them from office
2. Several executed
3. Improvement of financial position
4. Tory faction ensured Clarendon Code was enforced
5. Freedom of speech suppressed & censorship

Absolutism and local govt

Whigs removed from local office & enable charles to maintain personal rule:
1. Judges disloyal lost there jobs
2. Charles challenged charters given to a number of towns
3. Corporation of the city of london was now controlled by those loyal to the king

Final years 1683-85

Last 2 years of his life, charles content to leave administration to his brother James and his ministers
Court felt that if Parliament was restored -> lead to a war with france & calls to hold new elections ignored

James II & Parliament:
Finance

Parliament assembled dominated by Tories supportive of james -> continued royal interference in awarding of borough charters
This parliament generous in its financial settlement £2 million per year = independence

James II and Parliament:
Religion

Later in 1685 james issued personal dispensations that allow Catholics to become army officers and announced that he intended to suspend both test acts
Both Whigs and Tories became resistant and voted to restrict james funding
James adjourned parliament in November and eventually dissolved it
Fear spread among Whigs and Tories that without parliament james would accept and promote Catholicism
When Scottish Parliament assembled in 1685, james announced that he intended to introduce penal laws against rebellious Presbyterians while advocating for toleration of catholics

Godden vs Hales

1686
Sir Edward Hales, catholic was sued by his coachmen for holding a military command without taking Anglican communion
At the trial judged that only the king could decide whether hales was at fault & whether officers should take test act
This had significant implications -> means that james had legal backing to suspend laws against Catholics

James and religious toleration

Case of godden vs hales started chain of events -> sympathy for the Catholic Church
- some highest offies given to catholics
- April 1687 -> james used ruling in godden vs hales to issue declaration of indulgence -> granted toleration to dissenters and Catholics
- james wanted to convert England to catholicism & indulgence seen as first step
- by issuing indulgence james attempting to gain support of Protestant dissenters as they would be given toleration
- catholics appointed as magistrates and james

The seven bishops

In 1688 -> james issued declaration of indulgence and ordered that it be read to congregations in every parish.
Seven bishops refused to obey and were arrested
When james wife had a son 2 days later -> prospect of catholic weir reality

Invitation to power

Seven leading political figures signed a letter summer 1688 inviting William of orange to intervene in England with an armed force
Viewed William as legitimate heir to the throne because he was married to james Protestant daughter Mary. William accepted for 2 reasons:
1. Those who signed represented both sides of political elite in England & had already considered launching and invasion into England
2. He was involved in a league that tried to restrict Louis XIV -> 9 years war thought if brought england would help balance resources

The invasion

William well supplied -> 500 ships & 21,000 men & he landed at Torbay -> series of delays Nov 1688
Victory not guaranteed, however James had an effective army at his disposal
James amassed forced on Salisbury Plain -> retreated once saw size of army and gave William a clear path to london

James leave throne vacant?

Williams march to London in December and with supporters deserting him in large numbers -> james attempts to flee to exile in france -> captured in Kent brought to london however William allowed him to escape and join Louis XIV court

Williams supporter now claim due to james fleeing he had abdicated the throne -> legitimatising Williams claim to rule

Convention Parliament

A convention parliament was established in Jan 1689 to plan for future of monarchy and country -> more radical Whigs wanted to declare William immediately however others favoured Mary
Crown offered to them both -> declaration of rights presented and read allowed to William and Mary
Document outlined injustices of james reign & clauses aimed to limit royal power, although there recognition of it not condition of accepting crown
Declaration modified and many of terms placed on statute book as bill of rights

Bill of rights 1689

Clauses:
1. Laws can't be suspended by the monarch without parliament consent
2. Money can't be granted to a monarch without consent of parliament
3. Subjects have right to petition the monarch and can't be prosecuted for doing so
4. A monarch can't keep a standing army in times of peace without consent of parliament
5. Elections ought to be free
6. MP's and Lords should have freedom of speech when they are debating in parliament
7. Excessive bail shouldn't be sought by the authorities or excessive fines imposed
8. No cruel or unusual punishment should be inflicted
9. Parliaments held frequently

Did the bill of rights benefits crown or parliament?

Important in establishing rights of parliament:
- prospect of an absolute monarch vastly diminished
- legal position of army made certain
- no doubt monarchs could only achieve success if worked with parliament
- citizens given certain rights and protections from arbitrary power -> enshrined in law
Benefited the crown:
- William and Mary accepted throne without conditions and not obliged to respect the clauses of declaration of rights and by extension bill of rights
- bill of rights vague -> frequent parliament could still allow for absolutism
- no provisions ensuring elections regular or free made no definition of what free meant
- bill of rights didnt form a contract between the king and his people and as it was statue law -> repealed by any future parliament
- monarch free to decide matters of war and peace, foreign policy & royal advisors

Mutiny Acts

- restricting kings powers through bill of rights
Number passed from 1689, ensured:
- monarch couldn't court martial soilders at will
Each act only valid for a year -> king no choice but to turn to parliament

Toleration Act 1689: reasons

William urged removal of test act for public office holders and faced hostility from anglicans
William aware need maintain good relations all sides of religious spectrum -> middle path suggested toleration act but Anglican demands for uniformity be discussed later in 1689

Content of Toleration Act 1689

Dissenters exempt from punishments if took oath of alleged e to crown & accepted 1678 test act -> couldn't enter public employment without swearing loyalty to Anglican Church
Dissenters not expected to attend Anglican Church but meetings closely monitored -> doors of meeting place couldn't be locked
Act gave dispensation to certain dissenting groups -> Quakers declare rather than swear loyalty to crown -> didn't believe in taking oaths
Act excluded catholics & the Jewish and test act not repealed, dissenters technically not sit in parliament or hold public office

Impact of religious toleration

400,000 dissenters by 1714 -> 8% of population
- William used authority to influence judges and curb church interference
- power of church courts restricted
- Whigs pushed for Anglican clergy to swear an oath to William and Mary
Due to test act, act of uniformity and corporation act —> those who didnt swear Albigenses to Anglican Church couldn't attend university, work in legal profession, practice medicine
- dissenters required to pay church taxes on form of tithes, even if they didnt attend local parish church
- further toleration acts passed in Ireland and scotland -> didnt give dissenters opportunity to participate in local or national govt
- catholic little to fear from William as had entered alliance with number of catholic powers

Financial impact of nine years war

William brought england into nine years war -> side of Dutch -> spending increased drastically
Average annual expenditure on the war was £5.4 million
Average tax revenue was just £3.6 million

The revolution in crown finances

To pay for war = land tax 1692 & yielded £1 million in first year
New taxes also introduced on imported items such as tea, tobacco and alcohol
Still not enough to meet short fall -> short term loans from merchants and city traders
- 1693 loan from investors £108,000 and paid back loan with interest rate 10%
- other loans arranges 1694-97 benefits were paid to investors from excise taxes on malt
Bank of England set up 1694 -> vehicle to help William secure loans
- system of public credit = national debt
National debt = £16.7 million in 1698 -> repayments 30% of crowns annual revenue

The civil list

Passed 1698 giving William fixed income of £700,000 per year to meet expenses of govt including salaries of civil servants and judges + expenditure of royal household
King and parliament had to meet regularly in order to renew the civil list for the following year

Parliamentary control of finance

Concerns among MP's about huge sums of money being spent on war led to number of parliamentary commissions being set up
- in 1690 William agreed to public accounts act = first commission 1691
- Commissions forerunner to modern day elect committees within parliament
- had the power to interrogate ministers and call papers from govt
- commissioners published reports which would expose corruption and waste at Williams court
- scrutiny carried out with unprecedented attention to detail. Meeting took place daily and interviews were regularly carried out -> govt officials obstruct process
- commissions became increasingly used to attack unpopular govt ministers in the 2nd half of 1690's
- commission renewed each year 1697 -> William blocked more being established

Importance of parties

When William become king formed privy council of his choosing-> he was cautious to include Whigs and Tories
Parliament 1690 -> 225 Whigs & 206 Tories.
William showed preference by leaving Court Tories in charge when he went to fight james battle boyne
Whig rebels attempted to push through triennial bill-> ensure regular parliaments, passed by both houses and William used royal veto to block

The Whig junto

Influential 1692 1692 -> considerable influence in parliament 1694-99
Favoured war with france -> promote Protestant cause in Europe

Triennial Act 1694

Junto Whig dominate govt
2nd triennial bill given royal assent Jan 1694 -> parliament couldn't last longer than 3 years = general election frequent
Rivalry between Whigs & Tories

Years after passing of triennial act

1695: election -> Whigs dominated
1696: plot discovered to assassinate William -> William reliant on Whigs
1697: opposition to dominion Whig junto passed a vote limiting Williams army to 10,000 men
1698: Whig Junto began to collapse, their opposition able to secure bill reducing Williams army further 7,000 -> members of junto promoted or resigned
1699: commission investigating confiscated lands in Ireland -> report found William made excessive grants to loyal courtiers. Parliament passed bill stating any grants in Ireland given to privy council members illegal
1701: election -> Tories made gains began impeachment process edging against Whig junto members -> acquitted

Hanoverian Succession

Act of Settlement of 1701 stated
Future succession vested in House of Hanover, German royal dynasty to avoid potential catholic heirs
Sophia granddaughter of James I married elector of Hanover -> when she died passed to her son George I

Terms of Act of Succession

- catholics and those married to Catholics -> barred from succession
- members of CofE
- judges no longer dismissed without consent parliament
- royal pardons declared void -> impeachment
- monarch unable to leave Britain without parliament consent
- no future monarch allowed to enter England into war in order to defend monarchs home country consent of parliament

How far did parliament and monarchy become partners?

Did become :
- William needed parliamentary taxes to fight french -> parliament increased control on govt finances
- triennial act made parliament institution William couldn't ignore
- William forced to appoint men loathed to senior as result of parliamentary pressure
- William forced to reduced size of army -> parliament
- bill of rights -> parliamentary approval needed to be sought for the approval of a standing army in peacetime and outlawed taxation without parliamentary consent
Power still in hands of the monarch:
- desire to join royal court result of uncertainty caused by regular elections
- much of royal prerogative left intact -> monarchs power to declare war, dissolve parliament & veto legislation
- William more financial independence than previous monarchs because of finically revolutions & long term borrowing