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Cross-Cultural Psychology

empirical study of how human behavior and mental processes vary across cultures.

Focuses on comparing groups to discern universalities (etic) and culture-specific (emic) patterns.

Etic vs. Emic Approaches

Etic: outsider perspective, universal constructs using standardized methods.
Emic: insider perspective, culture-specific constructs rooted in local contexts.

Levels of Analysis

Individual: how culture influences a person’s thinking, feeling, and behavior.
Group: intra-cultural (minority/mainstream) and inter-cultural comparisons.

Cultural Psychology vs. Cross-Cultural Psychology

Cultural: studies mutual construction of culture and mind, often qualitative.
Cross-cultural: focuses on comparisons across cultures, often quantitative.

Independent vs. Interdependent Self-Construal

Independent: the self is unique, autonomous; promotes self-expression and personal achievement (common in Western cultures).

Interdependent: self is defined in relation to others; promotes harmony and role-based identity (common in East Asian cultures).

Identity Types

Personal identity: traits unique to the individual.
Relational identity: defined by relationships (e.g., daughter, friend).
Collective identity: group memberships (e.g., nationality).
Cultural identity: sense of belonging and shared norms.

Self-Enhancement vs. Self-Criticism

Self-enhancement: seeing oneself positively; valued in Western cultures.
Self-criticism: focus on self-improvement; valued in Eastern cultures.

Emotion: Universal vs. Cultural Aspects

Basic emotions (Ekman): universal facial expressions for emotions like joy, anger, sadness.
Culture shapes emotional triggers, meanings, and regulation.

Display Rules (Ekman & Friesen)

Learned norms about how/when emotions are expressed.
Japanese culture: suppress anger in public to maintain harmony.

Emotion Regulation

Individualistic cultures: express emotions openly.
Collectivistic cultures: regulate or suppress emotions for social harmony.
Methods: suppression, reappraisal, masking, neutralizing.

High vs. Low Arousal Emotions

Western cultures: prefer high-arousal emotions (excitement, pride).
East Asian cultures: value low-arousal emotions (calmness, contentment).

Dialectical Emotions

Experiencing conflicting emotions (e.g., happiness and sadness together). More common in East Asian cultures due to Confucian/Taoist balance values.

Acculturation (Berry’s Model)

Assimilation: adopting host culture, discarding heritage.
Separation: keeping heritage culture, avoiding host culture.
Integration: combining both cultures.
Marginalization: losing connection to both.

Acculturation Strategies (Boski’s EARN vs. LEARN)

EARN: economic adaptation, driven by necessity.
LEARN: acculturation through deliberate learning and integration.
Boski emphasizes bicultural competence: ability to navigate both cultures.

Acculturation Process

Not just adaptation, but learning values, symbols, languages.
Occurs via direct immersion or remotely (media, education).

Bicultural Competence

Skills allowing individuals to function effectively in two cultures.
Includes language fluency, symbolic understanding, and value alignment.

Appraisal-Focused Coping (Lazarus)

Primary appraisal: is this event threatening or relevant?
Secondary appraisal: can I cope with it?
Mindset: stress as challenge vs. stress as threat.

Constructive Coping (Connor-Smith)

Coping efforts that are healthy, goal-directed, and emotionally regulated.
Voluntary strategies: primary/secondary control and disengagement coping.
Involuntary: emotional engagement or disengagement without control.

Pan-Cultural Research Projects

Hofstede’s 6 Dimensions

1. Power Distance – acceptance of inequality.

2. Individualism vs. Collectivism – I vs. We.

3. Masculinity vs. Femininity – competition vs. caring.

4. Uncertainty Avoidance – tolerance for ambiguity.

5. Long-Term Orientation – future planning vs. tradition.

6. Indulgence vs. Restraint – gratification vs. control.

GLOBE’s 9 Dimensions

1. Power Distance

2. Uncertainty Avoidance

3. Institutional Collectivism

4. In-Group Collectivism

5. Gender Egalitarianism

6. Assertiveness

7. Future Orientation

8. Performance Orientation

9. Humane Orientation
   Measured values (ideals) vs. practices (real behaviors).

Cultural Clusters (GLOBE)

Examples:

• Anglo (USA, UK, Australia)

• Confucian Asia (China, Singapore)

• Nordic Europe (Sweden, Norway)

• Latin America, Sub-Saharan Africa, etc.

Schwartz’s Value Theory

Universal values across 3 poles:

• Openness to change vs. Conservation

• Self-enhancement vs. Self-transcendence

• Embeddedness vs. Autonomy

Cultural Dimensions & Behavior

Teamwork: collectivism fosters cohesion, individualism promotes autonomy.
Conflict: assertive cultures confront, others avoid.
Motivation: performance-oriented cultures reward results.
Gender roles: shaped by gender egalitarianism.

Multiculturalism (Kymlicka)

Three phases:

1. Civil rights & decolonization (1950s–60s)

2. Multicultural legislation (1970s–80s)

3. Civic integration & backlash (post-2000s)

Key Debates in Multicultural Policy

Group rights (recognition) vs. individual rights (equality).
Particularism (cultural autonomy) vs. universalism (shared values).
Integration vs. fragmentation in plural societies.

Canadian Model

Praised for reducing discrimination and fostering belonging.
Needs more intersectional focus: gender, religion, Indigenous rights.