Comprehensive Psychology: Behaviorism, Classical & Operant Conditioning, and Observational Learning

BEHAVIORISM

A theory in psychology that focuses on understanding behavior through observable actions and the influence of the environment, rather than internal thoughts or feelings.

ACQUISITION

The initial stage of classical conditioning, where one links a neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus.

Neutral Stimulus

A stimulus that initially produces no specific response until it is paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Stimulus

A previously neutral stimulus that, after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus, begins to elicit a conditioned response.

Unconditioned Response

An unlearned response that occurs naturally in reaction to the unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Response

A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus that has become conditioned.

Discrimination

The ability to differentiate between the conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli.

Generalization

The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.

Extinction

The diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus does NOT follow a conditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.

Higher-Order Conditioning

A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second conditioned stimulus.

DRUG CRAVINGS

Individuals with substance use disorder are often discouraged from surrounding themselves with things that they associate with using.

IMMUNE RESPONSES

When a particular taste accompanies a drug that influences immune responses, the taste by itself may come to produce an immune response.

OPERANT CONDITIONING

A type of learning in which behavior becomes more likely to reoccur if followed by a reinforcer and less likely if followed by a punisher.

Law of Effect

Principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

SKINNER'S OPERANT CHAMBER

A chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

SHAPING

An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

REINFORCEMENT

Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT

Increasing behaviors by presenting a pleasurable stimulus; strengthens the response.

NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing an aversive stimulus.

EXAMPLE OF REINFORCEMENT

A child crying because he didn't get any candy.

Primary Reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus (i.e., we are naturally hardwired to desire/avoid)

Conditioned Reinforcer

A stimulus that gets its power through association with a primary reinforcer (i.e., we learn to desire/avoid through experience)

Reinforcement Schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.

Intermittent Reinforcement

reinforcing only part of the time; takes longer to occur but is resistant to extinction.

Continuous Reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs; takes less time to establish but can easily become extinct once you stop reinforcing.

Ratio

Number of behaviors.

Interval

Passage of time.

Fixed Ratio

reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses. (Ex: buy 10, get 1 free)

Variable Ratio

reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. (ex: slot machine)

Fixed Interval

reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed. (ex: getting paid every 2 weeks)

Variable Interval

reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals. (ex: pop quizzes at random times)

Punishment

Any event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows.

Negative Punishment

Decreasing behaviors by removing a pleasurable stimulus. (EX: Taking away a toy, phone privileges, or TV time)

Positive Punishment

Decreasing behaviors by presenting an unpleasant stimulus. (EX: Extra chores, a speeding ticket, a scolding)

Preparedness

A biological predisposition to learn associations that have survival value, like taste and nausea.

Instinctive Drift

The tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns.

Mirror Neurons

Frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe another doing so.

Observational Learning

i.e., learning by observing others.

Modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

Prosocial Behaviors

positive, constructive, helpful behavior.

Antisocial Behaviors

behavior that is harmful, aggressive, or violates social norms or the rights of others.